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	<title>英語汁 / Eigo-jiru | ”独り言英語のススメ”  BY コンカズ</title>
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	<description>グローバル化による個人の時代の到来... 英会話を日常生活の習慣として少しずつでも取り入れていこう！</description>
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		<title>Can you tell the names of the solar system planets in English? 《Eigo-jiru vol.30》</title>
		<link>https://www.konkaz.com/eigo-jiru-english-030/</link>
		
		<dc:creator><![CDATA[konkaz]]></dc:creator>
		<pubDate>Sun, 20 Aug 2023 14:55:52 +0000</pubDate>
				<category><![CDATA[英語汁 / Eigo-jiru]]></category>
		<guid isPermaLink="false">https://www.konkaz.com/?p=15880</guid>

					<description><![CDATA[In this article, we're delving into our understanding of the planets in the solar system, as well as encompassing the English vocabulary associated with this subject area.]]></description>
										<content:encoded><![CDATA[
<p><br><br>Hi! It’s konkaz (<a rel="noopener nofollow" target="_blank" href="https://twitter.com/konkazuk"><strong>@konkazuk</strong></a>) here.<br><br><br>In this article, we are going to explore the “<strong>solar system</strong>”, while also picking up related English vocabulary along the way. <br><br><br>Unless we have a personal interest in celestial bodies, I presume we rarely research such topics proactively.<br><br></p>



<div class="wp-block-cocoon-blocks-balloon-ex-box-1 speech-wrap sb-id-13 sbs-stn sbp-r sbis-cn cf block-box"><div class="speech-person"><figure class="speech-icon"><img decoding="async" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/09/bubble-0001.jpg" alt="" class="speech-icon-image"/></figure><div class="speech-name"></div></div><div class="speech-balloon">
<p>Besides, in this day and age, whenever we open our mobile phones, a substantial influx of information of our interest that is curated by AI based on our past search data surges in.</p>
</div></div>



<p><br>However, learning about celestial bodies can lead to numerous discoveries.<br><br><br>Above all, when you compare your own existence to the vast scale of celestial bodies, worrying about trivial and insignificant matters can feel utterly foolish.<br><br><br><br>So, let&#8217;s gather some English vocabulary related to the universe right here.</p>



<p></p>



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  <div id="toc" class="toc tnt-none toc-center tnt-none border-element"><input type="checkbox" class="toc-checkbox" id="toc-checkbox-1"><label class="toc-title" for="toc-checkbox-1">目次</label>
    <div class="toc-content">
    <ul class="toc-list open"><li><a href="#toc1" tabindex="0">What is the solar system?</a></li><li><a href="#toc2" tabindex="0">What are the planets in the solar system made of?</a><ul><li><a href="#toc3" tabindex="0">Sun</a></li><li><a href="#toc4" tabindex="0">Mercury, Venus, Earth &amp; Mars</a></li><li><a href="#toc5" tabindex="0">Jupiter &amp; Saturn</a></li><li><a href="#toc6" tabindex="0">Uranus &amp; Neptune</a></li></ul></li><li><a href="#toc7" tabindex="0">What lies beyond the solar system?</a></li></ul>
    </div>
  </div>

<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><span id="toc1">What is the solar system?</span></h2>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><img fetchpriority="high" decoding="async" width="510" height="247" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/08/tumisu-copy-2.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-15891" srcset="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/08/tumisu-copy-2.jpg 510w, https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/08/tumisu-copy-2-300x145.jpg 300w" sizes="(max-width: 510px) 100vw, 510px" /><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">image by Tumisu</figcaption></figure>



<p>First of all, the term for &#8220;<strong>taiyo-kei</strong>&#8221; in English is &#8220;<strong>solar system</strong>&#8221; [səʊlə sɪstəm].</p>



<p>In Japanese, we also use terms like &#8220;solar power&#8221; or &#8220;solar panel&#8221; and they are the same &#8220;solar&#8221;. <br><br>Regarding the pronunciation of &#8220;solar&#8221; in English, if we try our best to approximate it in Katakana, it would be something like &#8220;<strong>Su-o-u-ra</strong>.&#8221; (&#8220;ra&#8221; does not go with English pronunciation though&#8230; if you know what I mean&#8230;)<br><br></p>



<p>The reason why it is called the &#8220;<strong>solar system</strong>&#8221; is that <strong>about 4.6 billion years ago</strong>, a swirling mass of gas and dust in space, known as a molecular cloud, gradually condensed, and as a result, the &#8220;Sun&#8221; was born in the denser central region.  And over time, the remaining gas and dust coalesced to create planets like Earth in its vicinity.<br><br><br>So, you can understand it as the &#8220;Sun as the boss and its entourage.&#8221;<br><br><br><br>The main planets that formed around the Sun, as you can see in the image that is being featured earlier, are the following eight planets in order of proximity to the Sun.<br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">🔹 <strong>Mercury</strong> [mɜːkjəri]  =  <strong>Sui</strong>sei<br>🔹 <strong>Venus</strong> [viːnəs]  =  <strong>Kin</strong>sei<br>🔹 <strong>Earth</strong> [ɜːθ]  =  <strong>Chi</strong>kyu<br>🔹 <strong>Mars</strong> [mɑːz]  =  <strong>Ka</strong>sei<br>🔹 <strong>Jupiter</strong> [dʒuːpɪtər]  =  <strong>Moku</strong>sei<br>🔹 <strong>Saturn</strong> [sætən]  =  <strong>Do</strong>sei<br>🔹 <strong>Uranus</strong> [jʊərənəs]  =  <strong>Ten</strong>nousei<br>🔹 <strong>Neptune</strong> [neptʃuːn]  =  <strong>Kai</strong>ousei</h4>



<p><br><br>Some of you might vaguely recall learning something like &#8220;Sui, Kin, Chi, Ka, Moku, Do, Ten, Kai, Mei&#8230;&#8221; back in school days, but hey&#8230;. Don&#8217;t you realize that there seems to be one extra here?<br><br></p>



<h5 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Pluto</strong> [pluːtəʊ], the &#8220;Mei&#8221; was discovered in the early 20th century, and it initially had been  recognized as the ninth planet. However, over time, various facts came to light, and in 2006, an assembly of <strong>astronomers</strong> from around the world gathered for a conference, and as a result, Pluto was reclassified and removed from the category of planets in the solar system.</h5>



<p><br><br>The reason for this is that Pluto&#8217;s <strong>orbit</strong> [ɔːbɪt] deviates from the nearly flat orbits of the other eight planets. Additionally, many other celestial objects, beyond Pluto, were discovered later on and the characteristics of these were distinct from those of the original eight planets. As a result, Pluto was excluded from the group of planets.<br></p>



<h6 class="wp-block-heading">Is the moon a planet?</h6>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full is-resized"><img decoding="async" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/08/mike-petrucci-1.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-15892" style="aspect-ratio:465/349" width="465" height="349" srcset="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/08/mike-petrucci-1.jpg 510w, https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/08/mike-petrucci-1-300x225.jpg 300w" sizes="(max-width: 465px) 100vw, 465px" /><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">image by Mike Petrucci</figcaption></figure>



<p>The moon is not a planet but rather a celestial body that orbits around a planet, known as a &#8220;<strong>satellite</strong>&#8221; [sæṭəlὰɪt] in English.<br><br><br>It is said that there are no moons around Mercury and Venus, but other planets have one or more moons orbiting around them, wandering about.<br></p>



<h6 class="wp-block-heading">The difference between &#8220;gravity&#8221; and &#8220;gravitational force.&#8221;</h6>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full is-resized"><img decoding="async" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/08/muzammil-soorma-1.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-15894" style="aspect-ratio:425/285" width="425" height="285" srcset="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/08/muzammil-soorma-1.jpg 425w, https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/08/muzammil-soorma-1-300x201.jpg 300w" sizes="(max-width: 425px) 100vw, 425px" /><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">image by muzammli stoorma</figcaption></figure>



<p>Let&#8217;s take a moment to revise the difference between &#8220;gravity&#8221; and &#8220;gravitational force&#8221; here.<br><br><br>Firstly, there is a mutual pulling force between planets known as &#8220;gravitational force,&#8221; referred to as &#8220;<strong>gravitation</strong>&#8221; [grævɪteɪʃʌn] in English.</p>



<p>The law discovered by the British physicist Newton in the 17th century states that &#8220;every object attracts every other object with a force.&#8221; <br><br><br><br>And as for &#8220;<strong>gravity</strong>&#8221; [grævəti], it is the combined force of the Earth&#8217;s gravitational pull and the centrifugal force due to its <strong>rotation</strong> [rəʊˈteɪʃn].<br><br></p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><span id="toc2">What are the planets in the solar system made of?</span></h2>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="510" height="339" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/08/andre-hunter-1.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-15896" srcset="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/08/andre-hunter-1.jpg 510w, https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/08/andre-hunter-1-300x199.jpg 300w" sizes="(max-width: 510px) 100vw, 510px" /><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">image by Andre Hunter</figcaption></figure>



<p>Here, we will categorize the planets and have a look at them accordingly.<br><br>Please be prepared, as some chemistry-related vocabulary will be involved.<br></p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading"><span id="toc3">Sun</span></h3>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="425" height="281" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/08/luis-graterol-1.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-15897" srcset="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/08/luis-graterol-1.jpg 425w, https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/08/luis-graterol-1-300x198.jpg 300w" sizes="(max-width: 425px) 100vw, 425px" /><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">image by Luis Graterol<br></figcaption></figure>



<p>Let&#8217;s start with the <strong>Sun</strong>. <br><br><br>Categorically speaking, <strong>the Sun is not considered a</strong> &#8220;<strong>planet</strong>.&#8221;<br><br></p>



<h5 class="wp-block-heading">A self-luminous celestial body is referred to as a &#8220;<strong>star,</strong>&#8221; and the Sun is the only star in the solar system.</h5>



<p><br><br>The Sun, which is at the center of the solar system, is said to be composed of about 98% <strong>hydrogen</strong> [hάɪdrədʒən] and <strong>helium </strong>[híːliəm].</p>



<p><br>During the &#8220;<strong>nuclear fusion</strong>&#8221; reactions where hydrogen transforms into helium, an immense amount of energy is generated, continuously releasing intense light.<br></p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading"><span id="toc4">Mercury, Venus, Earth &amp; Mars</span></h3>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="425" height="292" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/08/nasa-1.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-15899" srcset="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/08/nasa-1.jpg 425w, https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/08/nasa-1-300x206.jpg 300w" sizes="(max-width: 425px) 100vw, 425px" /><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">image by nasa</figcaption></figure>



<p>Following that, the four planets close to the Sun &#8211; <strong>Mercury</strong>, <strong>Venus</strong>, <strong>Earth</strong>, and <strong>Mars</strong> &#8211; are collectively referred to as &#8220;<strong>terrestrial planets</strong>&#8221; in English, based on their shared characteristics.</p>



<p>The term &#8220;<strong>terrestrial</strong>&#8221; [təréstriəl] means &#8220;composed of land,&#8221; indicating a proper solid surface and existence, much like Earth, characterized by a tangible solid presence.<br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">Around the Sun, it&#8217;s incredibly hot, so basically, substances other than &#8220;<strong>metal</strong>&#8221; and &#8220;<strong>silicate</strong>&#8221; cannot exist as solids.</h4>



<p><br></p>



<div class="wp-block-cocoon-blocks-balloon-ex-box-1 speech-wrap sb-id-13 sbs-stn sbp-r sbis-cn cf block-box"><div class="speech-person"><figure class="speech-icon"><img decoding="async" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/09/bubble-0001.jpg" alt="" class="speech-icon-image"/></figure><div class="speech-name"></div></div><div class="speech-balloon">
<p>These components exist in only a tiny proportion in the nebulae of the solar system, so &#8220;terrestrial&#8221; planets are comparatively smaller in size than others.</p>
</div></div>



<p><br>Furthermore, beyond Mars, the outermost of the four planets, there is a scattering of <strong>asteroids</strong> [æstərɔɪd], forming a ring-like band known as the &#8220;<strong>asteroid belt</strong>.&#8221;<br></p>



<p>The warm region encompassing these four planets, including the &#8220;asteroid belt,&#8221; is particularly referred to as the &#8220;<strong>inner solar system</strong>&#8221; within the &#8220;solar system.&#8221; It is distinguished from the region beyond Jupiter, known as the &#8220;<strong>outer solar system</strong>.&#8221;</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading"><span id="toc5">Jupiter &amp; Saturn</span></h3>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="425" height="279" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/08/alessandro-ferrari-1.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-15900" srcset="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/08/alessandro-ferrari-1.jpg 425w, https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/08/alessandro-ferrari-1-300x197.jpg 300w" sizes="(max-width: 425px) 100vw, 425px" /><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">image by Alessandro Ferrari</figcaption></figure>



<p>Next, outside the aforementioned &#8220;asteroid belt,&#8221; the planets orbiting around the Sun are <strong>Jupiter</strong> and <strong>Saturn</strong>.</p>



<p>Compared to &#8220;terrestrial planets&#8221; these planets are larger and just like the Sun, they are composed of gases like <strong>hydrogen</strong> and <strong>helium</strong>, therefore, they are also referred to as &#8220;<strong>gas giants.</strong>&#8220;</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading"><span id="toc6">Uranus &amp; Neptune</span></h3>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="425" height="274" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/08/nasa-neptune-1.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-15901" srcset="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/08/nasa-neptune-1.jpg 425w, https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/08/nasa-neptune-1-300x193.jpg 300w" sizes="(max-width: 425px) 100vw, 425px" /><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">image by nasa</figcaption></figure>



<p>Lastly, <strong>Uranus</strong> and <strong>Neptune. <br></strong><br>These two planets are often referred to as look-alikes, due to the similarities they share in terms of mass and size.<br><br><br>Like Jupiter and Saturn, they are enveloped in gases such as hydrogen and helium, however, being situated even farther from the Sun than Jupiter and Saturn, they get significantly reduced solar energy influence. <br><br><br>Consequently, their surface temperatures are considerably lower enough to cause freezing, leading to their classification as &#8220;<strong>ice giants</strong>.&#8221;<br><br><br><br>It is said that the reason why these two planets look blue (with Uranus being slightly fainter) is because the planetary surface contain &#8220;<strong>methane</strong>&#8221; [miːθeɪn], which absorbs red light, leading to this effect.<br><br></p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><span id="toc7">What lies beyond the solar system?</span></h2>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="510" height="340" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/08/Timrael.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-15902" srcset="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/08/Timrael.jpg 510w, https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/08/Timrael-300x200.jpg 300w" sizes="(max-width: 510px) 100vw, 510px" /><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">image by Timrael</figcaption></figure>



<p>Beyond the solar system, the space is filled with &#8220;<strong>galaxies</strong>&#8220;. <br><br><br>Our solar system, including Earth, is said to be one of over 500 solar systems within the &#8220;<strong>Milky Way galaxy</strong>&#8220;.<br><br><br>Just as there are numerous solar systems within the Milky Way galaxy, there are also countless galaxies comparable in size to ours. This emphasizes that nature is truly boundless.<br><br><br><br><br><br>&#8230;Well, that&#8217;s about it for this time.<br><br></p>



<div class="wp-block-cocoon-blocks-balloon-ex-box-1 speech-wrap sb-id-16 sbs-stn sbp-r sbis-cn cf block-box"><div class="speech-person"><figure class="speech-icon"><img decoding="async" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/09/bubble-0004.jpg" alt="" class="speech-icon-image"/></figure><div class="speech-name"></div></div><div class="speech-balloon">
<p>Sometimes, knowledge that rarely comes up in everyday conversations can suddenly prove useful one day if you take the opportunity to familiarize yourself with it.</p>
</div></div>



<p><br><strong>So, let&#8217;s make sure we can name the planets in order from the Sun in English by taking this opportunity.</strong><br><br><br><br>Thanks for having read though and I hope you have enjoyed it.<br><br><br>konkaz<br><br><br><br>You can read this blog post in Japanese from the link below.<br><br>👉 <a rel="follow noopener" target="_blank" href="https://www.konkaz.com/eigo-jiru-030/">太陽系の惑星や宇宙に関する語彙の英語ボキャブラリーをインプットしよう!《英語汁 第30号》</a></p>
]]></content:encoded>
					
		
		
			</item>
		<item>
		<title>太陽系の惑星に関するボキャブラリーを英語でインプットしよう!《英語汁 第30号》</title>
		<link>https://www.konkaz.com/eigo-jiru-030/</link>
		
		<dc:creator><![CDATA[konkaz]]></dc:creator>
		<pubDate>Tue, 08 Aug 2023 21:06:00 +0000</pubDate>
				<category><![CDATA[英語汁 / Eigo-jiru]]></category>
		<guid isPermaLink="false">https://www.konkaz.com/?p=15452</guid>

					<description><![CDATA[今回の記事では、太陽系の惑星についての知識を学ぶと同時に、そのエリアの英語ボキャブラリーをカヴァーしています。]]></description>
										<content:encoded><![CDATA[
<p><br><br>どうも、コンカズ&nbsp;(<a rel="noopener nofollow" target="_blank" href="https://twitter.com/konkazuk"><strong>@konkazuk</strong></a>)&nbsp;です。<br><br><br>今回の記事では、英語の勉強を交えながら「<strong>太陽系</strong>」について見ていきます。<br><br><br>天体のことなんて個人的に興味がない限り、みなさん自分から調べるなんてことは滅多にないのではないでしょうか？<br></p>



<div class="wp-block-cocoon-blocks-balloon-ex-box-1 speech-wrap sb-id-13 sbs-stn sbp-r sbis-cn cf block-box"><div class="speech-person"><figure class="speech-icon"><img decoding="async" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/09/bubble-0001.jpg" alt="" class="speech-icon-image"/></figure><div class="speech-name"></div></div><div class="speech-balloon">
<p>今の時代、自分にとって興味がありそうな情報は、ケータイを開くたびにAI が過去の検索データをもとに選んだものが多量に流れ込んでくるわけですし&#8230;<br></p>
</div></div>



<p><br>しかしながら、天体のことを学ぶとたくさんの発見があります。<br><br><br>何よりも、自分の存在と天体のスケールの大きさを比べると、小さくてくだらないことで悩んでいるのがアホのように感じられます。<br><br><br><br>というわけで、宇宙に関する英語ボキャブラリーをここでいくつか拾っていきましょう。</p>



<p></p>



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  <div id="toc" class="toc tnt-none toc-center tnt-none border-element"><input type="checkbox" class="toc-checkbox" id="toc-checkbox-2"><label class="toc-title" for="toc-checkbox-2">目次</label>
    <div class="toc-content">
    <ul class="toc-list open"><li><a href="#toc1" tabindex="0">太陽系とは？</a></li><li><a href="#toc2" tabindex="0">太陽系の惑星は何でできている？</a><ul><li><a href="#toc3" tabindex="0">太陽</a></li><li><a href="#toc4" tabindex="0">水星・金星・地球・火星</a></li><li><a href="#toc5" tabindex="0">木星・土星</a></li><li><a href="#toc6" tabindex="0">天王星・海王星</a></li></ul></li><li><a href="#toc7" tabindex="0">太陽系の外には何がある？</a></li></ul>
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  </div>

<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><span id="toc1">太陽系とは？</span></h2>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full is-resized"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/07/tumisu.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-15735" style="aspect-ratio:562/272" width="562" height="272" srcset="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/07/tumisu.jpg 510w, https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/07/tumisu-300x145.jpg 300w" sizes="(max-width: 562px) 100vw, 562px" /><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">image by Tumisu</figcaption></figure>



<p>まずは「<strong>太陽系</strong>」を英語で言うと、&#8221;<strong>solar system</strong>&#8221; [səʊlə sɪstəm]。<br><br><br>日本語でも「ソーラー・パワー」 とか 「ソーラー・パネル」とか言いますよね。<br><br>その「ソーラー」です。　英語発音をカタカナで頑張ると &#8220;<strong>スゥォウルァ</strong>&#8221; って感じですかね。<br><br><br><br>なんで「太陽系」って呼ばれているかと言うと、<strong>およそ46億年前</strong>に宇宙空間に漂うガスやちりが集まったもの (分子雲) がグルグル回っていくうちに、密度の高くなった中心部に「太陽」が生まれ、残ったガスやちりから、地球などの惑星が周りに形成されていったので、「ボスである太陽とその取り巻き」と考えたら理解できると思います。<br><br><br><br>上の画像を参考にしてもらえると視覚的にわかりやすいと思いますが、これら太陽の周りにできた惑星の主なものは、太陽に近いものから&#8230; <br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">🔹 <strong>Mercury</strong> [mɜːkjəri]  =  <strong>水星</strong><br>🔹 <strong>Venus</strong> [viːnəs]  =  <strong>金星</strong><br>🔹 <strong>Earth</strong> [ɜːθ]  =  <strong>地球</strong><br>🔹 <strong>Mars</strong> [mɑːz]  =  <strong>火星</strong><br>🔹 <strong>Jupiter</strong> [dʒuːpɪtər]  =  <strong>木星</strong><br>🔹 <strong>Saturn</strong> [sætən]  =  <strong>土星</strong><br>🔹 <strong>Uranus</strong> [jʊərənəs]  =  <strong>天王星</strong><br>🔹 <strong>Neptune</strong> [neptʃuːn]  =  <strong>海王星</strong></h4>



<p><br>の８惑星となります。<br><br><br><br>むかし学校で、スイ、キン、チ、カ、モク、ドッ、テン、カイ、メイ&#8230; ってな感じで習った記憶が、頭の奥の方に薄っすらと残っている方もいらっしゃると思いますが、あれっ&#8230; １つ多いですよね。<br><br></p>



<h5 class="wp-block-heading">20世紀前半に発見された「メイ」の<strong>冥王星</strong> &#8220;<strong>Pluto</strong>&#8221; [pluːtəʊ] は、9番目の惑星としてしばらくの間は認められていたのですが、発見されてから次第に色々な事実が判明し、2006年に世界中から集まった<strong>天文学者</strong> &#8220;<strong>astronomer</strong>&#8221; [əstrˈɔnəmə] 達による会議の結果、太陽系の惑星の枠から外されてしまいました。</h5>



<p><br><br>その理由としては、冥王星の<strong>軌道</strong> &#8220;<strong>orbit</strong>&#8221; [ɔːbɪt] が、ほぼ同じ面状に軌道がある他の８惑星のものとズレていること。そして冥王星以外にも、たくさんの星がのちに発見されて、総合的に他の８惑星の持っている特質とは異なるとされ、除外されるに至りました。<br></p>



<h6 class="wp-block-heading">月は惑星？</h6>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full is-resized"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/08/mike-petrucci.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-15820" style="aspect-ratio:425/281" width="425" height="281" srcset="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/08/mike-petrucci.jpg 425w, https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/08/mike-petrucci-300x198.jpg 300w" sizes="(max-width: 425px) 100vw, 425px" /><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">image by Mike Petrucci</figcaption></figure>



<p>月は、惑星 &#8220;planet&#8221; ではなく、惑星の周りを回る天体で「<strong>衛星</strong>」、英語で &#8220;<strong>satellite</strong>&#8221; [sæṭəlὰɪt] となります。<br><br>水星と金星には月はないらしいですが、他の惑星には１つ以上の月が周りをウロウロ？しているとの事です。</p>



<h6 class="wp-block-heading"><br>「重力」と「引力」の違い</h6>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="425" height="285" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/08/muzammil-soorma.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-15821" srcset="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/08/muzammil-soorma.jpg 425w, https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/08/muzammil-soorma-300x201.jpg 300w" sizes="(max-width: 425px) 100vw, 425px" /><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">image by muzammli stoorma</figcaption></figure>



<p>ついでに重力と引力の違いをここで復習しておきましょう。<br><br><br>まず、惑星と惑星の間にはお互いに引き合う力があり、これが「<strong>引力</strong>」と呼ばれるもので、英語で &#8220;<strong>gravitation</strong>&#8221; [grævɪteɪʃʌn] となります。<br><br><br>「あらゆる物体と物体は、お互いに引き合う力を持っている」っていう、イギリスの物理学者ニュートンさんが17世紀に発見した法則ですね。<br><br><br><br>でもって「<strong>重力</strong>」&#8221;<strong>gravity</strong>&#8221; [grævəti] の方は、地球の引力と<strong>自転</strong> &#8220;<strong>rotation</strong>&#8221; [rəʊˈteɪʃn] の遠心力を合わせた力、ということになります。<br><br><br></p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><span id="toc2">太陽系の惑星は何でできている？</span></h2>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full is-resized"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/08/andre-hunter.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-15823" style="aspect-ratio:510/339" width="510" height="339" srcset="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/08/andre-hunter.jpg 510w, https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/08/andre-hunter-300x199.jpg 300w" sizes="(max-width: 510px) 100vw, 510px" /><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">image by Andre Hunter</figcaption></figure>



<p>ここでは、惑星を種類別に見ていきたいと思います。<br><br>英語ボキャブラリーもちょっと化学系のものが入ってくるので、覚悟してください。</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading"><span id="toc3">太陽</span></h3>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full is-resized"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/08/luis-graterol.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-15816" style="aspect-ratio:425/281" width="425" height="281" srcset="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/08/luis-graterol.jpg 425w, https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/08/luis-graterol-300x198.jpg 300w" sizes="(max-width: 425px) 100vw, 425px" /><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">image by Luis Graterol</figcaption></figure>



<p>まずは<strong>太陽</strong>から。<br><br><br>いきなりですが、太陽はジャンル的に言うと「<strong>惑星</strong>」<strong>ではありません</strong>。<br></p>



<h5 class="wp-block-heading">自ら光を発している星は「<strong>恒星</strong>」&#8221;<strong>star</strong>&#8221; と呼ばれ、太陽は太陽系の中では唯一の恒星となります。</h5>



<p><br><br>ソーラーシステムの中心である太陽は、全体の98％ぐらいが<strong>水素</strong>と<strong>ヘリウム</strong>で構成されていると言われています。<br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">水素は英語で &#8220;<strong>hydrogen</strong>&#8221; [hάɪdrədʒən]、ヘリウムは(スペリングはそのまま) &#8220;<strong>helium</strong>&#8221; [híːliəm]</h4>



<p><br><br>水素がヘリウムに変化する際に起きる<strong>核融合</strong> &#8220;<strong>nuclear fusion</strong>&#8221; 反応の際に、すごいエネルギーが生み出され、それによってガンガン光が放出され続けているというわけです。</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading"><span id="toc4">水星・金星・地球・火星</span></h3>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="425" height="292" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/08/nasa.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-15817" srcset="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/08/nasa.jpg 425w, https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/08/nasa-300x206.jpg 300w" sizes="(max-width: 425px) 100vw, 425px" /><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">image by nasa</figcaption></figure>



<p>続いて、太陽から近い <strong>水星</strong>、<strong>金星</strong>、<strong>地球</strong>、<strong>火星</strong>の４つの惑星は、コレらの持っている特質から英語で、&#8221;<strong>terrestrial planet</strong>&#8221; と呼ばれています。<br><br><br>&#8220;<strong>terrestrial</strong>&#8221; [təréstriəl] の意味は、「<strong>陸から成る</strong>」ってことで、ちゃんと地表があって、地球のように固体で存在しているという感じですかね。<br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">太陽の周りは、めちゃめちゃ熱いので、基本的に &#8220;<strong>metal</strong>&#8221; 「金属」と &#8220;<strong>silicate</strong>&#8221; 「ケイ酸塩（岩石に含まれる鉱物の一種）」以外の物質は、固体として存在できません。</h4>



<p><br></p>



<div class="wp-block-cocoon-blocks-balloon-ex-box-1 speech-wrap sb-id-13 sbs-stn sbp-r sbis-cn cf block-box"><div class="speech-person"><figure class="speech-icon"><img decoding="async" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/09/bubble-0001.jpg" alt="" class="speech-icon-image"/></figure><div class="speech-name"></div></div><div class="speech-balloon">
<p>太陽系の星雲にはコレらの成分はほんのちょっとの割合でしか存在しないため、&#8221;terrestrial&#8221; の惑星は他とくらべて、サイズが小さめとなっております。</p>
</div></div>



<p><br>さらに、４つの惑星の一番外側にある火星の向こうには、小惑星 &#8220;<strong>asteroid</strong>&#8221; [æstərɔɪd] が散らばっており、リング状に散らばっているこの帯は、&#8221;<strong>asteroid belt</strong>&#8221; と呼ばれています。<br><br><br>この &#8220;asteroid belt&#8221; を含めたコレら四つの惑星が存在する温かいエリアは、&#8221;solar system&#8221; の中でもとりわけ &#8220;<strong>inner solar system</strong>&#8221; と呼ばれ、木星を含めた木星から外側のエリア &#8220;<strong>outer solar system</strong>&#8221; と区別されています。</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading"><span id="toc5">木星・土星</span></h3>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="425" height="279" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/08/alessandro-ferrari.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-15818" srcset="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/08/alessandro-ferrari.jpg 425w, https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/08/alessandro-ferrari-300x197.jpg 300w" sizes="(max-width: 425px) 100vw, 425px" /><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">image by Alessandro Ferrari</figcaption></figure>



<p>はい。<br><br>次に、先ほど述べた &#8220;asteroid belt&#8221; の外側で、太陽を中心に回っている惑星は、<strong>木星</strong>と<strong>土星</strong>となります。<br><br><br>こいつらは &#8220;terrestrial planet&#8221; と比べるとサイズもデカく、また、太陽と同じように<strong>水素</strong>や<strong>ヘリウム</strong>などのガスで構成されているため、&#8221;<strong>gas giants</strong>&#8221; とも呼ばれています。</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading"><span id="toc6">天王星・海王星</span></h3>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="425" height="274" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/08/nasa-neptune.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-15824" srcset="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/08/nasa-neptune.jpg 425w, https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/08/nasa-neptune-300x193.jpg 300w" sizes="(max-width: 425px) 100vw, 425px" /><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">image by nasa</figcaption></figure>



<p>最後は<strong>天王星</strong>と<strong>海王星</strong>。<br><br>この２つの惑星は、質量や大きさを含め、かなりのそっくりさんであると言われています。<br><br><br>木星や土星と同様、水素やヘリウムなどのガスで覆われていますが、木星や土星よりもさらに太陽から離れたところに位置するため、太陽エネルギーの影響はかなり少なくなります。<br><br>よって表面温度もかなり低く、凍り付いてしまっているため &#8220;<strong>ice giants</strong>&#8221; と呼ばれています。<br><br><br>この２つの惑星が青い (天王星の方がやや薄め) 理由は、惑星の表面層に「<strong>メタン</strong>」&#8221;<strong>methane</strong>&#8221; [miːθeɪn] が含まれていて、これが赤い光を吸収してしまうためであると言われています。<br><br></p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><span id="toc7">太陽系の外には何がある？</span></h2>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="510" height="340" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/07/Timrael.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-15752" srcset="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/07/Timrael.jpg 510w, https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/07/Timrael-300x200.jpg 300w" sizes="(max-width: 510px) 100vw, 510px" /><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">image by Timrael</figcaption></figure>



<p>太陽系の外側は、銀河 &#8220;<strong>galaxy</strong>&#8221; が広がっています。<br><br><br>私たちが住む地球を含んだ太陽系は、銀河系 &#8220;<strong>Milky Way galaxy</strong>&#8221; 内に500以上存在する太陽系のうちの一つであると言われています。<br><br><br>そんでもって、銀河系内に太陽系が多数存在するように、その銀河系に匹敵する銀河もさらにたくさん存在しているというので、もうとにかく果てしないって事ですね。<br><br><br><br><br>&#8230;とまぁこんな感じで、今回は以上となります。<br><br></p>



<div class="wp-block-cocoon-blocks-balloon-ex-box-1 speech-wrap sb-id-16 sbs-stn sbp-r sbis-cn cf block-box"><div class="speech-person"><figure class="speech-icon"><img decoding="async" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/09/bubble-0004.jpg" alt="" class="speech-icon-image"/></figure><div class="speech-name"></div></div><div class="speech-balloon">
<p>日常会話に滅多に出てこない知識も、機会がある時に目を通しておくと、ある日突然役に立つ時がやってきます。</p>
</div></div>



<p><br><strong>太陽から順番に惑星を英語で言えるようにしておきましょう。</strong><br><br><br><br><br>それではまた。<br><br><br>コンカズ<br><br><br>*この記事の英語ヴァージョンはこちらから<br><br>👉 <a rel="follow noopener" target="_blank" href="https://www.konkaz.com/eigo-jiru-english-030/">Can you tell the names of the solar system planets in English? 《Eigo-jiru vol.30》</a></p>



<p></p>



<p></p>



<p></p>
]]></content:encoded>
					
		
		
			</item>
		<item>
		<title>【Separation of powers】Revising its definition as well as learning some related English vocabularies.《Eigo-jiru vol.29》</title>
		<link>https://www.konkaz.com/eigo-jiru-029-english/</link>
		
		<dc:creator><![CDATA[konkaz]]></dc:creator>
		<pubDate>Sun, 09 Apr 2023 11:39:10 +0000</pubDate>
				<category><![CDATA[英語汁 / Eigo-jiru]]></category>
		<guid isPermaLink="false">https://www.konkaz.com/?p=14046</guid>

					<description><![CDATA[The definition of "Separation of powers" is being reviewed with this blog post including how it is being dealt with in some  representative developed countries.]]></description>
										<content:encoded><![CDATA[
<p><br><br>Hi! It’s konkaz (<a rel="noopener nofollow" target="_blank" href="https://twitter.com/konkazuk"><strong>@konkazuk</strong></a>) here.<br><br><br>In this article, we are going to review&nbsp;“<strong>separation of powers</strong>” as well as learning some English vocabularies in the area.<br><br><br>We must have heard the phrase “separation of powers” during the lesson of social studies or civics while we were junior high school or possibly high school students.&nbsp;<br><br></p>



<div class="wp-block-cocoon-blocks-balloon-ex-box-1 speech-wrap sb-id-17 sbs-stn sbp-r sbis-cn cf block-box"><div class="speech-person"><figure class="speech-icon"><img decoding="async" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/09/bubble-0002.jpg" alt="" class="speech-icon-image"/></figure><div class="speech-name"></div></div><div class="speech-balloon">
<p>I vaguely remember the phrase, but if I was asked to explain what it is to someone, then&#8230; I would be totally hopeless.&nbsp;</p>
</div></div>



<p><br>But not to worry.</p>



<p>Let us review what it is here and grab some related English vocabularies while we are at it.&nbsp;<br></p>



<p></p>



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  <div id="toc" class="toc tnt-none toc-center tnt-none border-element"><input type="checkbox" class="toc-checkbox" id="toc-checkbox-3"><label class="toc-title" for="toc-checkbox-3">目次</label>
    <div class="toc-content">
    <ul class="toc-list open"><li><a href="#toc1" tabindex="0">What is the &#8220;Separation of powers&#8221;?</a></li><li><a href="#toc2" tabindex="0">What is life like without &#8220;separation of powers&#8221; ?</a></li><li><a href="#toc3" tabindex="0">What is the situation of the separation of powers in major developed countries?</a><ul><li><a href="#toc4" tabindex="0">The United Kingdom</a></li><li><a href="#toc5" tabindex="0">Japan</a></li><li><a href="#toc6" tabindex="0">France</a></li><li><a href="#toc7" tabindex="0">U.S.A</a></li></ul></li></ul>
    </div>
  </div>

<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><span id="toc1">What is the &#8220;Separation of powers&#8221;?</span></h2>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="510" height="317" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/bruno-germany.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-13472" srcset="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/bruno-germany.jpg 510w, https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/bruno-germany-300x186.jpg 300w" sizes="(max-width: 510px) 100vw, 510px" /><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">image by Bruno / Germany</figcaption></figure>



<p>Right. <br><br><br>Let’s just bring back our memories from the past here.<br></p>



<p>Even if the phrase “separation of powers” does not ring a bell, I presume you will get an image of it, when you hear some terms of Japanese political system such as “Rippo”, “Shiho” and “Gyosei”.<br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">Because these three institutions that run our country have existed as separate organs since we were aware of our surroundings, we just simply take it granted and do not even think deeply about it.</h4>



<p><br><br>However, in reality, we are actually able to lead our everyday life with a certain degree of freedom and human rights owing to the fact that these three institutions are being administered by separate organs.</p>



<p><br>Anyway, let us keep in mind the following three English vocabularies, which will be the keys to read this article.<br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">🔹<strong>Rippo</strong>&nbsp;＝&nbsp;<strong>legislation</strong>&nbsp;[ledʒɪˈsleɪʃən]<br><br>🔹<strong>Shiho</strong>&nbsp;=&nbsp;<strong>judiciary&nbsp;</strong>[dʒuːˈdɪʃəri]<br><br>🔹<strong>Gyosei&nbsp;</strong>=&nbsp;<strong>executive</strong>&nbsp;[ɪɡˈzekjʊtɪv]<br><br>* “Rippo” is also called “administration”.</h4>



<p><br><br>&#8230;and the places where these three are put into practice are called&#8230;<br><br></p>



<h5 class="wp-block-heading">&#8220;Rippo&#8221;&nbsp;➡︎&nbsp;「<strong>Gikai</strong>」<br><br>&#8220;<strong>Parliament</strong>&nbsp;(UK),&nbsp;<strong>Congress</strong>&nbsp;(USA),&nbsp;<strong>Diet</strong>&nbsp;(Japan)&#8221;&nbsp;<br><br><br>&#8220;Shiho&#8221;&nbsp;➡︎&nbsp;「<strong>Hotei</strong>」<br><br>&#8220;<strong>Court</strong>&#8220;<br><br><br>&#8220;Gyosei&#8221;&nbsp;➡︎&nbsp;「<strong>Seifu</strong>」&nbsp;<br><br>&#8220;<strong>Government</strong>&#8221;&nbsp;</h5>



<p><br><br>Now, why does the fact that these three organs are being operated separately relate to the freedom and rights we currently possess?<br></p>



<p>That’s because each of these territories has its own &#8220;<strong>power</strong>.&#8221;<br><br><br>I believe the word “power” generally reminds us of the phrases such as&#8230;<br><br><br>“sources of power”<br>“be full of power”<br>“supernatural power”<br>“vitamin power”<br><br><br>and so on&#8230;  and they are used in the sense of “energy”, <br><br><br>however,&nbsp;<br></p>



<h5 class="wp-block-heading">the ”<strong>power</strong>” is referred to as&nbsp;“<strong>authority</strong>” in this article’s context.</h5>



<p><br><br>To give some examples of the phrase that includes the word “power”, which is used in the sense of “authority”, they will be&#8230;<br><br><br><br><strong>a man of power<br>state power<br>a power struggle</strong><br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">The word “<strong>state</strong>” can be associated with the image of the “states of America”, however, the vocabulary is often used in the sense of a “<strong>nation</strong>” or an “<strong>organised political community</strong>” in some political subjects, so it’s good to keep this in mind.</h4>



<p><br><br>Anyway, the “<strong>powers</strong>” that are being possessed by three branches of government can be expressed as&#8230;<br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">🔹<strong>legislative power</strong>&nbsp;&nbsp;=&nbsp;&nbsp;“<strong>rippo-ken</strong>”<br><br>🔹<strong>judicial power&nbsp;&nbsp;</strong>=&nbsp;“<strong>shiho-ken</strong>”&nbsp;<br><br>🔹<strong>executive</strong>&nbsp;<strong>power&nbsp;&nbsp;</strong>=&nbsp;<strong>&nbsp;“gyosei-ken”&nbsp;</strong>or “<strong>shikko-ken</strong>”</h4>



<p><br>(an adjective form of “<strong>executive</strong>” is the same as its noun form.)<br><br><br><br>When you see the words that end with “ken” such as “senkyo-ken” (=“right to vote” in English) , you might think of the “right” to do something, but the word “ken” in “sanken bunritsu” (=”separation of powers” in English) refers to “<strong>power</strong>/<strong>authority</strong>”.<br><br><br>Therefore, from the top, they are&#8230; “the power to make laws”, “the power to decide and pronounce a judgement” and “the power to enforces the law and policies”.<br><br><br><br>And in the sense of dividing the power of governing the country among these three branches and operating separately, “sanken bunritsu” is called&#8230;&nbsp;</p>



<h5 class="wp-block-heading">“<strong>separation of powers</strong>”</h5>



<p><br>in English.</p>



<p><br>Incidentally, the vocabulary “<strong>exercise</strong>” is often applied when some kind of implementation of “power” is mentioned in the sentence.<br><br></p>



<div class="wp-block-cocoon-blocks-balloon-ex-box-1 speech-wrap sb-id-13 sbs-stn sbp-r sbis-cn cf block-box"><div class="speech-person"><figure class="speech-icon"><img decoding="async" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/09/bubble-0001.jpg" alt="" class="speech-icon-image"/></figure><div class="speech-name"></div></div><div class="speech-balloon">
<p>I guess we tend to associate the word “exercise” with the image of “moving body” or “practicing something”, but it will be useful to keep the above-mentioned meaning in mind for the future.</p>
</div></div>



<p><br>Anyway, here, I have featured some sentences that include the word “exercise”, which is being used in the sense of “to implement”, therefore, please read them aloud.<br><br><br><br><strong>The legislative, executive and judicial powers of government shouldn&#8217;t be exercised by the same person.&nbsp;</strong><br><br><br><strong>The judge exercised the powers of his office.</strong><br><br><br><strong>The landlady may exercise her right to review the rent.</strong><br><br><br><strong>The Prime Minister heads the government but exercises no statutory powers.</strong><br><br><br></p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><span id="toc2">What is life like without &#8220;separation of powers&#8221; ?</span></h2>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="510" height="340" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/ian-noble.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-13474" srcset="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/ian-noble.jpg 510w, https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/ian-noble-300x200.jpg 300w" sizes="(max-width: 510px) 100vw, 510px" /><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">image by Ian Noble</figcaption></figure>



<p>I mentioned earlier that&nbsp;we were able to lead our everyday life with a certain degree of freedom and human rights because the “power” to run a country has been divided into three branches and each of them is being exercised by a separate organ in a government.<br><br><br>So that means&#8230;&nbsp;&nbsp;if the power has not been divided like this, our life would have been pretty much screwed up, doesn’t it?</p>



<p><br>And the situation is going to be like&#8230; “<strong>One person is able to exercise all these three powers.</strong>”</p>



<p><br>We can find out how screwed up the situation could have been by looking back on history.<br><br><br></p>



<h5 class="wp-block-heading">In the past, “<strong>revolutions</strong>” had broken out in some countries including France, the UK, Russia, Japan and so on.</h5>



<p><br><br>But why did people have to go through such experiences in these countries knowing that they were likely to lose their lives?<br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">That’s because the kings and queens who were the rulers of the countries at that time were taking control of all these three powers (i.e.&nbsp;<strong>legislative power, executive power and judicial power</strong>), and were abusing these powers for their own sake without considering the people’s lives.</h4>



<p><br><br>Especially in Europe, religion is essentially well-connected with politics, therefore there was such a doctrine called “<strong>The divine right of kings</strong>” in those days, and its concept which was like “kings are governing the country with their authority being derived from God, therefore they have a divine power” had been implanted in people’s mind.&nbsp;<br><br><br>Hence, it must have been like&#8230;<br><br><br>“Oh, no! Not again! Another crop failure! Besides this hefty tax is killing me!<br><br> &#8230;Oh, well, our king is related to God, isn&#8217;t he? So, we gotta keep it up, don&#8217;t we?”</p>



<p><br>Therefore, even though there was such an unjust pyramid-shaped system called “<strong>Feudalism</strong>” in those days, commoners worked very hard till they collapse.<br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>And if you moan about it, then you can be facing the last day of your life.</strong></h4>



<p><br><br><br>Because the governors can&nbsp;<strong>take control of all three powers</strong>, they can be so conceited like “Hey, at the end of the day, I’m just like God, aren’t I?” that&#8230;<br></p>



<h5 class="wp-block-heading">they can make laws that are convenient for themselves, using the&nbsp;<strong>legislative power</strong>, and use it to pass judgement on the people with the&nbsp;<strong>judicial power</strong>. They can also excuse those laws and collect heavy taxes from the people using the&nbsp;<strong>executive power</strong>.</h5>



<p><br><br><strong>The lives of commoners were no big deal for them</strong> <strong>therefore it was totally okay to torture or kill them.</strong><br><br><br><br>If the commoners were to voice their complaints and rise up,&nbsp;he could amend the laws further to intimidate and inflict even more suffering on them.&nbsp;<br><br></p>



<div class="wp-block-cocoon-blocks-balloon-ex-box-1 speech-wrap sb-id-13 sbs-stn sbp-r sbis-cn cf block-box"><div class="speech-person"><figure class="speech-icon"><img decoding="async" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/09/bubble-0001.jpg" alt="" class="speech-icon-image"/></figure><div class="speech-name"></div></div><div class="speech-balloon">
<p>This is something that is commonly referred to as “<strong>absolute monarchy</strong>”, isn’t it?</p>
</div></div>



<p><br>The monarchs in those days were “<strong>above the law</strong>” and had an absolute authority, therefore, they didn’t regard themselves as the same human beings as others.&nbsp;<br><br></p>



<p>As such an extremely unjust situation went on for years and years, and the patience of the people towards the king’s dictatorship reached its limit, they conjured up the courage to rise, took up arms and fought for their rights.They shed blood, went through thousands of deaths, and finally they succeeded in stripping away these rights from the rulers of the country.<br><br><br>And thanks to what they had achieved in the past, we are currently able to escape to air-conditioned Starbucks during scorching summers, sipping on a Frappuccino while studying English as well as spreading out our laptops to write some blog posts while having some hot coffees in a heated Gusto on freezing winter days.<br><br></p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><span id="toc3">What is the situation of the separation of powers in major developed countries?</span></h2>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full is-resized"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/sebastian-pichler.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-14110" width="496" height="331" srcset="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/sebastian-pichler.jpg 496w, https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/sebastian-pichler-300x200.jpg 300w" sizes="(max-width: 496px) 100vw, 496px" /><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">image by Sebastian Pichler</figcaption></figure>



<p>I presume lots of people recall the name of French philosopher and jurist, “<strong>Charles-Louis de Montesquieu</strong>” as soon as they hear the term “<strong>separation of powers</strong>”.<br><br><br>He published “The spirit of the Laws” about 40 years before the beginning of the French Revolution (1789-1799) and it is said that his ideas were greatly influenced by British politics.<br><br><br>By the way, although the “separation of powers” is now adopted by various countries as a modern national system, it seems like “three powers” are not always being separated plainly in practice.<br><br><br>Here, I’ve picked four representative developed countries, so let’s see what is going on with “separation of powers” in each country.<br></p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading"><span id="toc4">The United Kingdom</span></h3>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full is-resized"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/03/chris-robert.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-13678" width="468" height="307" srcset="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/03/chris-robert.jpg 468w, https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/03/chris-robert-300x197.jpg 300w" sizes="(max-width: 468px) 100vw, 468px" /><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">image by Chris Robert</figcaption></figure>



<p>Right.<br><br><br>Let&#8217;s begin with the UK.<br><br><br><br><strong>To give a conclusion, three powers are not separated in the UK.</strong><br><br><br>During the 17th century in England, there had been this bloody &#8220;English Civil War&#8221;, which was religious as well as political, going on between the &#8220;<strong>royalists</strong>&#8221; and the &#8220;<strong>parliamentarians</strong>&#8221; who demanded that the king open Parliament.<br></p>



<p>But through&#8230; <br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">the &#8220;<strong>Puritan Revolution</strong>&#8221; <br><br>&amp;<br><br>the &#8220;<strong>Glorious Revolution</strong>&#8221; <br><br>(together known as the &#8220;English Revolution&#8221;)</h4>



<p><br>they eventually arrived at the &#8220;<strong>Bill of Rights</strong>&#8220;.<br><br></p>



<p><br>And because the new king signed the &#8220;Bill of Rights,&#8221; which was presented to Parliament in 1689, what happened was&#8230;<br></p>



<h5 class="wp-block-heading">&#8220;<strong>absolute monarchy</strong>&#8221;  ➡︎  &#8220;<strong>constitutional monarchy</strong>&#8220;</h5>



<p><br>which is basically the new system that the monarchy signs government decisions but does not rule the country. <br><br><br><br>In other words, the power to govern the country was separated from the hands of the monarchy.<br><br><br></p>



<p>&#8220;However, this alone does not establish the separation of powers.&#8221;<br><br><br><br>The &#8220;British Parliament&#8221; consists of the &#8220;<strong>House of Lords</strong>&#8221; and the &#8220;<strong>House of Commons</strong>&#8220;, and a &#8220;<strong>parliamentary system</strong>&#8221; is applied to operate the government.<br></p>



<p><br>In a general election, the leader of the party that wins a majority of seats in the House of Commons becomes the &#8220;<strong>Prime Minister</strong>&#8220;, and they select Cabinet members from the Members of Parliament (MPs) to form the government and lead it. <br><br><br><strong>As a result, the legislative and executive branches are effectively fused together.</strong><br><br></p>



<div class="wp-block-cocoon-blocks-balloon-ex-box-1 speech-wrap sb-id-17 sbs-stn sbp-r sbis-cn cf block-box"><div class="speech-person"><figure class="speech-icon"><img decoding="async" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/09/bubble-0002.jpg" alt="" class="speech-icon-image"/></figure><div class="speech-name"></div></div><div class="speech-balloon">
<p>It wasn&#8217;t until the 21st century that the Supreme Court was established and the &#8220;<strong>judiciary</strong>&#8221; was barely separated.</p>
</div></div>



<p><br>&#8220;Until then, the position of &#8220;<strong>Lord Chancellor</strong>&#8221; (a position that does not exist in Japan) had held the positions of &#8220;Speaker&#8221; of the House of Lords, &#8220;Head of the Judiciary,&#8221; and &#8220;Presiding Judge of the High Court of Justice.&#8221;</p>



<p>So, that means&#8230; we can say that the &#8220;<strong>judiciary</strong>&#8221; and &#8220;<strong>legislation</strong>&#8221; were closely connected until recently.<br></p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading"><span id="toc5">Japan</span></h3>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="454" height="340" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/03/jorono-1.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-13683" srcset="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/03/jorono-1.jpg 454w, https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/03/jorono-1-300x225.jpg 300w" sizes="(max-width: 454px) 100vw, 454px" /><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">image by Jorono</figcaption></figure>



<p>Whenever I hear the word &#8220;member of parliament&#8221;, my brain automatically associates it with &#8220;cabinet&#8221; or &#8220;<strong>executive</strong>&#8220;.<br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">However, once I broke down the words &#8220;member of parliament&#8221; (in Japanese with Kanji characters) into &#8220;a member who participates in the country&#8217;s meetings&#8221;, I realized that they were actually part of the meetings&#8230; so they are the people from &#8220;<strong>legislation branch</strong>&#8221; (rather than from &#8220;executive branch&#8221;.</h4>



<p><br><br>&#8230; ???<br></p>



<p>I got confused a bit, but it was due to the fact that Japan&#8217;s parliamentary system applies the same &#8220;<strong>parliamentary cabinet system</strong>&#8221; as in the UK, and is resulting in a significant overlap between legislation and executive powers.</p>



<p><br>&#8220;The Prime Minister is elected from members of parliament, i.e. the legislation branch and more than half of the cabinet members who make up the Prime Minister&#8217;s team are also selected from members of parliament. <br><br><br>So, it&#8217;s not unreasonable to think of members of parliament as equivalent to the executive (although it&#8217;s not entirely accurate).<br><br><br>&#8220;Therefore, in Japan, the structure of &#8220;separation of powers&#8221; is established by the provisions of the Japanese Constitution, but as mentioned earlier, due to the adoption of the &#8220;parliamentary cabinet system,&#8221; the &#8220;legislation&#8221; and &#8220;executive&#8221; have become interrelated.&#8221;<br></p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading"><span id="toc6">France</span></h3>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="468" height="304" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/03/jossuha-theophile.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-13681" srcset="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/03/jossuha-theophile.jpg 468w, https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/03/jossuha-theophile-300x195.jpg 300w" sizes="(max-width: 468px) 100vw, 468px" /><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">image by Jossuha Theophile</figcaption></figure>



<p>When it comes to France, it is the &#8220;French Revolution&#8221;. <br><br><br>And when it comes to the French Revolution, it&#8217;s about the &#8220;Declaration of the Rights of Man&#8221; and the &#8220;guillotine&#8221;. <br><br>For those who disregarded human rights were guillotined by the people who bore a deep-rooted grudge against them.<br><br><br><br>Therefore&#8230;</p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">Two years after the &#8220;<strong>Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen</strong>&#8221; was made by the peasants that rose up in the summer of 1789, the French &#8220;<strong>separation of powers</strong>&#8221; was made concrete by the 1791 constitution.</h4>



<p><br><br>At that time, the &#8220;legislation&#8221; was administered by the National Assembly, the &#8220;judiciary&#8221; by judges who were elected by the people, and the &#8220;executive&#8221; by the king, therefore, one of the three powers were held by the king. <br><br><br>However, in the following year of 1792, the monarchy was abolished and a &#8220;<strong>republic</strong>&#8221; was established, and by the 1795 constitution, the separation of powers as a republican government was established.</p>



<p><br><br>From the &#8220;First Republic&#8221; that began here, there have been numerous changes of government over time, and the form from when Charles de Gaulle became president in 1958 to the present day is called the &#8220;Fifth Republic&#8221;. <br><br><br><br>Like in the UK and Japan, France&#8217;s parliament is also composed of an upper house and a lower house, with the lower house (National Assembly) holding more power.&#8221;<br><br></p>



<div class="wp-block-cocoon-blocks-balloon-ex-box-1 speech-wrap sb-id-13 sbs-stn sbp-r sbis-cn cf block-box"><div class="speech-person"><figure class="speech-icon"><img decoding="async" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/09/bubble-0001.jpg" alt="" class="speech-icon-image"/></figure><div class="speech-name"></div></div><div class="speech-balloon">
<p>The Prime Minister, by the way, is chosen from the lower house, and the executive power is exercised by both the Prime Minister and the President, who is elected by the popular vote. And because of this fact, the system is referred to as a &#8220;dual executive system (diarchy)&#8221;.</p>
</div></div>



<p><br><br>So, what about the separation of powers in France?<br><br></p>



<h5 class="wp-block-heading">Well, the President has the power to dissolve the National Assembly, and the Prime Minister has the power of veto over laws passed by the National Assembly. The judiciary also has the power to check the constitutionality of bills passed by the legislature. Therefore, it doesn&#8217;t seem like the three branches of government are neatly separated.</h5>



<p><br></p>



<div class="wp-block-cocoon-blocks-balloon-ex-box-1 speech-wrap sb-id-16 sbs-stn sbp-r sbis-cn cf block-box"><div class="speech-person"><figure class="speech-icon"><img decoding="async" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/09/bubble-0004.jpg" alt="" class="speech-icon-image"/></figure><div class="speech-name"></div></div><div class="speech-balloon">
<p>By the way, the word &#8220;<strong>veto</strong>&#8221; [viːtəʊ] is a noun meaning &#8220;a right to reject&#8221; or &#8220;rejection,&#8221; and a verb meaning &#8220;to reject&#8221; a proposal, bill, etc. The vocabulary is commonly used in political articles, so it&#8217;s good to keep in mind.<br></p>
</div></div>



<p></p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading"><span id="toc7">U.S.A</span></h3>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="468" height="314" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/03/ally-thomas.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-13682" srcset="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/03/ally-thomas.jpg 468w, https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/03/ally-thomas-300x201.jpg 300w" sizes="(max-width: 468px) 100vw, 468px" /><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">image by Ally Thomas</figcaption></figure>



<p>In the United States, <strong>a significant degree of separation of powers among the three branches of government can be seen.</strong><br><br><br>Unlike Japan or the UK, which have a parliamentary system, legislative and executive powers are not fused.</p>



<p>&#8220;Legislation&#8221; is led by the &#8220;<strong>Congress</strong>,&#8221; &#8220;judiciary&#8221; is led by the &#8220;<strong>Federal Court</strong>,&#8221; and &#8220;executive&#8221; is led by the &#8220;<strong>President</strong>&#8221; in the United States.<br><br></p>



<h5 class="wp-block-heading">The President of the United States cannot submit bills to Congress, nor can they participate in Congress.&nbsp;</h5>



<p><br><br>The President have the power of &#8220;veto&#8221; over the decisions made in Congress, but even if this happens, if the decision is re-approved by a two-thirds majority in both the &#8220;<strong>Senate</strong>&#8221; and the &#8220;<strong>House of Representatives</strong>&#8220;, the bill can become law without the President&#8217;s signature.</p>



<p>In addition, even if the President gets worked up and says, &#8220;Hey, you! We&#8217;re going to war with you!&#8221; the decision to go to war or not is in the hands of Congress.<br></p>



<p><br>However, if one area of potential overlap were to be mentioned, it would be the point below&#8230; </p>



<p><br>The Vice President of the United States also serves as the &#8220;President of the Senate,&#8221; but in practice, as they are typically occupied with advising the President and persuading Congress and the public of their directions, the position of Senate President is filled by a majority party member in the Vice President&#8217;s absence.<br><br><br>But&#8230;</p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">When there is a tie in the Senate vote, the Vice President appears as the President of the Senate to cast the deciding vote.</h4>



<p><br><br>Regarding this point, there is a sense of connection between the &#8220;executive&#8221; and &#8220;legislative&#8221; branches.<br><br></p>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full is-resized"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/03/marco-oriolesi.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-14004" width="408" height="271" srcset="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/03/marco-oriolesi.jpg 411w, https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/03/marco-oriolesi-300x199.jpg 300w" sizes="(max-width: 408px) 100vw, 408px" /><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">image by Marco Oriolesi</figcaption></figure>



<p><br>Anyway, while every country is being operated on the basis of the &#8220;separation of powers&#8221;,  the reality is that there is an overlap in the roles of the branches to varying degrees,</p>



<p>In any case, it appears that each branch monitors one another to prevent any branch from running amok and to maintain a good balance.<br><br><br><br><br>Anyway, this is it for today. <br><br><br>Finally, if you could try to provide your own answer in English to the question &#8220;What is the separation of powers?&#8221; based on your own understanding, it will be perfect.<br><br><br>Thank you for reading till the end.<br><br><br>konkaz<br><br><br><br>You can read this blog post in Japanese from the link below.<br><br>👉 <a rel="noopener follow" target="_blank" href="https://www.konkaz.com/eigo-jiru-029/">三権分立を学びつつ、政治関連の英語表現を身につけよう。《英語汁 第29号》</a><br></p>
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		<title>三権分立を学びつつ、政治関連の英語表現を身につけよう。《英語汁 第29号》</title>
		<link>https://www.konkaz.com/eigo-jiru-029/</link>
		
		<dc:creator><![CDATA[konkaz]]></dc:creator>
		<pubDate>Mon, 03 Apr 2023 21:29:30 +0000</pubDate>
				<category><![CDATA[英語汁 / Eigo-jiru]]></category>
		<guid isPermaLink="false">https://www.konkaz.com/?p=13466</guid>

					<description><![CDATA[「三権分立」の復習を、英語の勉強を兼ねながらサクッとやっていきます。]]></description>
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<p><strong><br><br></strong>どうも、コンカズ&nbsp;(<a rel="noopener nofollow" target="_blank" href="https://twitter.com/konkazuk"><strong>@konkazuk</strong></a>)&nbsp;です。<br><br><br>今回の記事では、英語の勉強を交えながら「<strong>三権分立</strong>」について見ていきます。<br><br><br>中学だったか高校だったか、それさえも覚えていないですが、おそらく社会か公民かなんかの科目の時間に聞いたであろうこの言葉。<br><br></p>



<div class="wp-block-cocoon-blocks-balloon-ex-box-1 speech-wrap sb-id-17 sbs-stn sbp-r sbis-cn cf block-box"><div class="speech-person"><figure class="speech-icon"><img decoding="async" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/09/bubble-0002.jpg" alt="" class="speech-icon-image"/></figure><div class="speech-name"></div></div><div class="speech-balloon">
<p>なんとな〜く記憶に残ってはいるけど、それを人に説明できるか？と言われたら、全くのお手上げですね&#8230;</p>
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<p><br>心配はいりません。<br><br><br>ここで「三権分立」の復習を、英語の勉強を兼ねながらサクッとやってしまいましょう。</p>



<p></p>



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  <div id="toc" class="toc tnt-none toc-center tnt-none border-element"><input type="checkbox" class="toc-checkbox" id="toc-checkbox-4"><label class="toc-title" for="toc-checkbox-4">目次</label>
    <div class="toc-content">
    <ul class="toc-list open"><li><a href="#toc1" tabindex="0"><strong>三権分立とは？</strong></a></li><li><a href="#toc2" tabindex="0"><strong>三権が分立されていない状態ってどんなんなん？</strong></a></li><li><a href="#toc3" tabindex="0">主な先進国においての三権分立の状況は&#8230;?</a><ul><li><a href="#toc4" tabindex="0">イギリス</a></li><li><a href="#toc5" tabindex="0">日本</a></li><li><a href="#toc6" tabindex="0">フランス</a></li><li><a href="#toc7" tabindex="0">アメリカ</a></li></ul></li></ul>
    </div>
  </div>

<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><span id="toc1"><strong>三権分立とは？</strong></span></h2>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="510" height="317" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/bruno-germany.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-13472" srcset="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/bruno-germany.jpg 510w, https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/bruno-germany-300x186.jpg 300w" sizes="(max-width: 510px) 100vw, 510px" /><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">image by Bruno / Germany</figcaption></figure>



<p>はい。まずはここで少し記憶を呼び覚ましていきます。<br><br><br><br>「三権分立」という言葉だけ聞いてピンとこない人も、日本の政治のシステムの「立法」「司法」「行政」と言われたら「あぁ、ソレね。」ってなる人も多いのでは。<br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">この、国を運営していく３つの機関が、私たちが物心ついた頃から、すでに別々なものとして存在しているため、私達にとってはこれが当然すぎて、深く考えることはありません。</h4>



<p><br><br>が、実際のところ、この３つの機関が別々の組織によって運営されていることにより、私たちの普段の生活の中には、ある程度の自由と権利が存在しているのであります。<br></p>



<p><br>というわけで、この今回の記事のキーとなる３つの英語表現を、まずここで心に留めておきましょう。<br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">🔹<strong>立法</strong>&nbsp;＝&nbsp;<strong>legislation</strong>&nbsp;[ledʒɪˈsleɪʃən]<br><br>🔹<strong>司法</strong>&nbsp;=&nbsp;<strong>judiciary&nbsp;</strong>[dʒuːˈdɪʃəri]<br><br>🔹<strong>行政</strong>&nbsp;=&nbsp;<strong>executive</strong>&nbsp;[ɪɡˈzekjʊtɪv]<br><br>*&nbsp;行政は&nbsp;“administration”&nbsp;と呼ばれることもあります。</h4>



<p><br><br>そして、これらが行われる場所が&#8230;<br><br></p>



<h5 class="wp-block-heading">立法&nbsp;➡︎ 「<strong>議会</strong>」<br><br>&#8220;<strong>Parliament</strong> (UK), <strong>Congress</strong> (USA), <strong>Diet</strong> (Japan)&#8221; <br><br><br>司法 ➡︎ 「<strong>法廷</strong>」<br><br>&#8220;<strong>Court</strong>&#8220;<br><br><br>行政&nbsp;➡︎ 「<strong>政府</strong>」 <br><br>&#8220;<strong>Government</strong>&#8221; </h5>



<p><br><br>となります。</p>



<p><br>それでは、なぜこの３つの機関が別々に運営されていることが、私たちが現在持っている自由と権利に関係があるのか？<br><br><br>それは、この３つにそれぞれ「<strong>パワー</strong>」があるからなんです。<br><br></p>



<p><br>私達が知っている、この「パワー」という言葉で思いつくのが&#8230;</p>



<p>「パワーの源」<br>「パワーがみなぎる」<br>「超能力パワー」<br>「ビタミンパワー」<br><br><br>など、なにかの「力」という意味で浮かんでくると思うのですが、<br></p>



<h5 class="wp-block-heading">ここで言う「<strong>パワー</strong>」は「<strong>権力</strong>」の事を指します。</h5>



<p>&nbsp;<br><br><br>“power” という言葉が「権力」という意味で使われている例を少しあげてみると&#8230;<br><br><br><strong>a man of power</strong>&nbsp;「<strong>権力者</strong>」<br><strong>state power</strong>&nbsp;「<strong>国家権力</strong>」<br><strong>a power struggle</strong>&nbsp;「<strong>権力闘争</strong>」<br><br><br>などが挙げられます。<br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">&#8220;<strong>state</strong>&#8221; と聞くと、「アメリカの州」のイメージがありますが、政治関連の話題では「<strong>国</strong>」または「<strong>国家</strong>」の意味でよく出てきますので、覚えておきましょう。</h4>



<p><br><br><br>でもって、先ほどの３つの機関の持つ「<strong>パワー</strong>」は&#8230;<br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">🔹<strong>legislative power</strong>「<strong>立法権</strong>」<br><br>🔹<strong>judicial power&nbsp;&nbsp;</strong>「<strong>司法権</strong>」<br><br>🔹<strong>executive</strong>&nbsp;<strong>power</strong>「<strong>行政権</strong>」または「<strong>執行権</strong>」</h4>



<p><br><br>ということができます。<br><br>（<strong>executive&nbsp;</strong>は、形容詞になってもカタチは変わりません。）<br><br><br><br>「〜権」なんて書かれているのを見ると「選挙権」みたいな感じで「〜する権利」って浮かんできてしまうかもしれませんが、三権分立の「権」は「<strong>権力</strong>」。<br><br><br>上から、「法律をつくる権力」「法律で裁く権力」「行政を行う権力」となります。<br><br><br><br><br>そして国を統治するその&nbsp;”power”&nbsp;を３つの機関に分けて別々に運営させるということで「三権分立」は英語で<br></p>



<h5 class="wp-block-heading"> ”<strong>separation of powers</strong>”&nbsp;</h5>



<p>&nbsp;<br>と呼ばれます。<br><br></p>



<p><br>ちなみに「<strong>権力を</strong>」<strong>行使する</strong>、<strong>ふるう</strong>、という表現には &#8220;<strong>exercise</strong>&#8221; というボキャブラリーが用いられます。<br><br><br></p>



<div class="wp-block-cocoon-blocks-balloon-ex-box-1 speech-wrap sb-id-13 sbs-stn sbp-r sbis-cn cf block-box"><div class="speech-person"><figure class="speech-icon"><img decoding="async" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/09/bubble-0001.jpg" alt="" class="speech-icon-image"/></figure><div class="speech-name"></div></div><div class="speech-balloon">
<p>”exercise&#8221; と聞くと、「体を動かす」とか「練習する」ってイメージがまず浮かんでくると思いますが、ここでの意味も覚えておくと後で必ず役立ちますよ。✨</p>
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<p><br>というわけで、いくつかここで例文をあげておくので、声に出して読んでみてください。<br><br><br><br><br><strong>The legislative, executive and judicial powers of government shouldn&#8217;t be exercised by the same person.&nbsp;</strong><br>「政府における権力である立法、行政、司法は、同じ一人の人間によって行使されるべきではない。」<br><br><br><br><strong>The judge exercised the powers of his office.</strong><br>「その裁判官は、彼の職権を行使した。」<br><br><br><br><strong>The landlady may exercise her right to review the rent.</strong><br>「大家さんは、家主の権利を使って家賃を見直すことができる。」<br><br><br>&nbsp;<br><strong>The Prime Minister heads the government, but exercises no statutory powers.</strong><br>「内閣総理大臣は政府のリーダーではあるが、法的な権限を持ってはいない。」<br><br><br><br>とまぁ、こんな感じになります。<br><br><br></p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><span id="toc2"><strong>三権が分立されていない状態ってどんなんなん？</strong></span></h2>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="510" height="340" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/ian-noble.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-13474" srcset="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/ian-noble.jpg 510w, https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/ian-noble-300x200.jpg 300w" sizes="(max-width: 510px) 100vw, 510px" /><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">image by Ian Noble</figcaption></figure>



<p>先ほど、これらの「権力」が分立されていることで、私達の生活にある程度の自由と権利が存在していると書きましたが、これは逆に言えば、分立されていなかったらヤバいって事ですよね。<br><br><strong><br></strong>じゃあそれはどういう状態なのかと言うと「<strong>これらの権力全てを一人の人間が握っている</strong>」という事になります。<br><br><br><br>&#8230;ではそれがどれほどヤバいんか？というと、歴史を振り返ってみることで理解できます。<br><br></p>



<h5 class="wp-block-heading">フランスをはじめ、イギリス、ロシア帝国、日本などでは、過去に「<strong>革命</strong>」 &#8220;<strong>revolution</strong>&#8221; が起こっています。</h5>



<p><br><br>では、なぜこれらの国では、たくさんの人たちが命を落としてまで、そんなことをしなくてはならなかったのか？　<br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">それは当時、国の統治者である国王/女王が、３つ (<strong>legislative power</strong>, <strong>executive</strong>&nbsp;<strong>power</strong>, <strong>judicial power</strong>) の権力を全て握っていて、国民のことなど考えずに、自分たちに都合のいいように好き放題やっていたからです。</h4>



<p><br><br>特にヨーロッパでは、基本的に政治と宗教が背中合わせになっているので、当時「<strong>王権神授説</strong>」&#8221;<strong>The divine right of kings</strong>&#8221; なんてものが存在して&#8230;<br><br><br>「王室は神に選ばれて国を統治しているわけだから、神の力が宿っていらっしゃる」<br><br><br>なんて概念が人々の心の中に植え付けられていて&#8230;<br><br><br>「穀物は今年も不作やし、税金も重いけど、神様と通じている国王様のために、今日もがんばるべ！」<br><br><br>ってな事になっていたんです。<br><br><br><br><br>こんな状態になっているのでピラミッド型の「<strong>封建制度</strong> 」&#8221;<strong>Feudalism</strong>&#8221; [<strong>fjuːd(ə)lɪz(ə)m</strong>] みたいなものがあっても、「<strong>平民</strong>」&#8221;<strong>commoner</strong>&#8221; は、腹ペコでブッ倒れるまで頑張ってまうんですね。<br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>でもって、文句を言ったら最後。</strong></h4>



<p><br><br>権力者は<strong>三権とも握っている</strong>わけですから、「オレってやっぱ神だよね。」ってことで、<br><br></p>



<h5 class="wp-block-heading">自分達にとって都合のいい法律をつくれますし &#8220;<strong>legislative power</strong>&#8220;、それによって人を裁くこともできますし &#8220;<strong>judicial power</strong>&#8220;、それを実行して、重い税金を回収したり <strong>&#8220;executive power&#8221;</strong> することもできます。</h5>



<p><br><br><br><strong>平民を拷問したり、殺したりしても彼ら的には全然オッケーなのです。</strong><br><br><br><br>平民たちが文句を言って立ち上がってきたら、さらに法律を変えて、もっと脅かして苦しめてやることもできますし&#8230;<br><br></p>



<div class="wp-block-cocoon-blocks-balloon-ex-box-1 speech-wrap sb-id-13 sbs-stn sbp-r sbis-cn cf block-box"><div class="speech-person"><figure class="speech-icon"><img decoding="async" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/09/bubble-0001.jpg" alt="" class="speech-icon-image"/></figure><div class="speech-name"></div></div><div class="speech-balloon">
<p>俗に言われる「<strong>絶対王政</strong>」&#8221;<strong>absolute monarchy</strong>&#8221; ってやつですね。</p>
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<p><br>当時の君主は「<strong>法にしばられない</strong>」&#8221;<strong>above the law</strong>&#8220;、つまり絶対的な権力を握っていたので、自分達のことを人間とも思っていないんです。<br><br></p>



<p>こんな理不尽な状態が続いて、<br><br><br>国民の王権に対する我慢にも限界が来て、<br><br><br>勇気を振り絞って立ち上がり、<br><br><br>武器を握って血を流し、<br><br><br>数え切れられないほどたくさんの死者を生み、<br><br><br>国の統治者から、これらの権利をはぎ落とすことに成功した上で&#8230;<br><br><br><br>現在の私達は、猛暑の続く夏に冷房の効いたスターバックスに逃げ込んで、フラペチーノを飲みながら英語の勉強をしたり、クソ寒い冬の日に暖房の効いたガストでノートパソコンを広げ、ホットコーヒーをすすりながらブログを書いたりすることができているわけです。<br><br></p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><span id="toc3">主な先進国においての三権分立の状況は&#8230;?</span></h2>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="496" height="331" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/03/sebastian-pichler.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-13670" srcset="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/03/sebastian-pichler.jpg 496w, https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/03/sebastian-pichler-300x200.jpg 300w" sizes="(max-width: 496px) 100vw, 496px" /><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">image by Sebastian Pichler</figcaption></figure>



<p><strong>三権分立</strong>という言葉を聞いて、フランスの「哲学者」&#8221;philosopher/thinker&#8221;&nbsp;で「法律専門家」&#8221;jurist&#8221;&nbsp;の「<strong>モンテスキュー</strong>」&#8221;<strong>Charles-Louis de Montesquieu</strong>&#8221;&nbsp;の名前が、まず頭の中によみがえってきたという方も結構いらっしゃるのではないでしょうか。<br><br><br>彼は、フランス革命&nbsp;(1789-1799)&nbsp;が始まるよりも40年ほど前に「<strong>法の精神</strong>」&#8221;<strong>Spirit of the law</strong>&#8221; を出版していますが、そのアイデアは、イギリスの政治から多大な影響を受けたと言われています。<br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">ところで、その「三権分立」ですが、近代的な国家システムとして、今となってはさまざまな国々で採用されていますが、必ずしも「三権」がパリッと分立しているわけではないようです。</h4>



<p><br><br>ここで、主な先進国を４カ国ほど選んでみたので、それぞれの国で三権分立がどんな状態になっているのか、見ていきたいと思います。</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading"><span id="toc4">イギリス</span></h3>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="468" height="307" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/03/chris-robert.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-13678" srcset="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/03/chris-robert.jpg 468w, https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/03/chris-robert-300x197.jpg 300w" sizes="(max-width: 468px) 100vw, 468px" /><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">image by Chris Robert</figcaption></figure>



<p>というわけで、まずはイギリスから。<br><br><br><strong>結論から言いますと、イギリスでは三権が分立されていません</strong>。<br></p>



<p><br>17世紀のイギリスでは&#8230;<br><br><br>「王室側」”<strong>royalists</strong>” &nbsp;vs 「国王てめぇ議会開けよ！側」”<strong>parliamentarians</strong>”&nbsp;<br><br><br>による、宗教がらみの血みどろの市民戦争&nbsp;“English Civil War”&nbsp;が続いていましたが、<br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">「ピューリタン革命」”<strong>Puritan Revolution</strong>”&nbsp;<br><br>「名誉革命」”<strong>Glorious Revolution</strong>&#8220;<br><br>（２つ合わせてイギリス革命&nbsp;“English Revolution”&nbsp;と呼ばれる）</h4>



<p><br><br>を経て、「<strong>権利の章典</strong>」”<strong>Bill of Rights</strong>”&nbsp;にたどり着きます。<br></p>



<p><br>この1689年に 議会によって提出された&nbsp;“Bill of Rights<strong>”&nbsp;</strong>に、新しい国王がサインしたことよって、<br><br></p>



<h5 class="wp-block-heading">「絶対君主制」”<strong>absolute monarchy</strong>” &nbsp;➡︎「立憲君主制」”<strong>constitutional monarchy</strong>&#8220;</h5>



<p><br><br>に移り、王室は政府の決断にサインはするけど統治はしない、つまり王室の手から、国を&nbsp;“govern”&nbsp;する権力&nbsp;“<strong>government</strong>”&nbsp;が分離されたわけです。<br><br><br><br>ところがこれだけでは、三権分立は成立しません。<br></p>



<p>イギリスの&nbsp;“Parliament”&nbsp;は、上院&nbsp;“<strong>House of Lords</strong>”&nbsp;と下院&nbsp;“<strong>House of Commons</strong>”&nbsp;から構成されていて、「<strong>議院内閣制</strong>」がとられています。</p>



<p><br>国民総選挙&nbsp;<strong>“</strong>general election<strong>”</strong>&nbsp;で、House of Common の席を過半数勝ち取った党の党首が総理大臣が&nbsp;“<strong>Prime Minister</strong>”&nbsp;となって、国会議員 &#8220;Member of Parliament (MP)&#8221; の中から国務大臣を選出して「内閣」”<strong>cabinet</strong>”&nbsp;を形成して政府を統率していくので&#8230;<br><br><br><strong>legislation&nbsp;と&nbsp;executive&nbsp;が事実上、くっついています。</strong><br><br></p>



<div class="wp-block-cocoon-blocks-balloon-ex-box-1 speech-wrap sb-id-17 sbs-stn sbp-r sbis-cn cf block-box"><div class="speech-person"><figure class="speech-icon"><img decoding="async" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/09/bubble-0002.jpg" alt="" class="speech-icon-image"/></figure><div class="speech-name"></div></div><div class="speech-balloon">
<p>最高裁判所が作られて、かろうじて&nbsp;”<strong>judiciary</strong>”&nbsp;が分離されたのは、なんと21世紀に入ってからのこと。</p>
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<p><br>それまでは「大法官」”<strong>Lord Chancellar</strong>” (日本にはないポジション)が、「上院議長」である&nbsp;“speaker”&nbsp;と、「主席裁判官」”head of judiciary”&nbsp;と、「法務大臣」&nbsp;“presiding judge of High Court of Justice”&nbsp;を兼ねてやっていました。<br><br><br> ってことは、つい最近まで &#8220;<strong>judiciary</strong>&#8221; と &#8220;<strong>legislation</strong>&#8221; がくっついていた事になりますよね。<br></p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading"><span id="toc5">日本</span></h3>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="454" height="340" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/03/jorono-1.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-13683" srcset="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/03/jorono-1.jpg 454w, https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/03/jorono-1-300x225.jpg 300w" sizes="(max-width: 454px) 100vw, 454px" /><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">image by Jorono</figcaption></figure>



<p>僕は「国会議員」と聞くだけで、脳ミソが勝手に「内閣」または「行政」&#8221;<strong>executive</strong>&#8221; と結びつけてしまいます。<br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">ところが「国会議員」の言葉を分解して「国の会議にたずさわる一員」としてみたら、あれっ、会議の人やん&#8230; 。<br>ってことは、&#8221;<strong>legislation</strong>&#8221; の方やん。</h4>



<p><br>&#8230;えっ？ どうなってんの？</p>



<p><br>頭の中が混乱しましたが、結局は日本の議会の構造がイギリスと同様「<strong>議院内閣制</strong>」を適用しているため、&#8221;legislation&#8221;&nbsp;と&nbsp;&#8220;executive&#8221;&nbsp;が見事にオーバーラップしているんですね。<br><br><br><br><br>首相は &#8220;legislation&#8221; の国会議員から選ばれ、その首相のチーム (cabinet) を構成する国務大臣の半分以上もまた、&#8221;legislation&#8221; の国会議員から選ばれる、ってことは、</p>



<h5 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>国会議員 ＝ executive</strong> (本当は違いますよ。)</h5>



<p><br>のイメージに落ち着いても仕方ないですよね。<br><br><br><br>というわけで、日本では日本国憲法の規定によって「三権分立」の構造ができていますが、上に述べたように「議院内閣制」を採用しているため、&#8221;legislation&#8221; と &#8220;executive&#8221; が兄弟関係になっているようです。<br></p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading"><span id="toc6">フランス</span></h3>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="468" height="304" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/03/jossuha-theophile.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-13681" srcset="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/03/jossuha-theophile.jpg 468w, https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/03/jossuha-theophile-300x195.jpg 300w" sizes="(max-width: 468px) 100vw, 468px" /><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">image by Jossuha Theophile</figcaption></figure>



<p>フランスと言えば、「フランス革命」&#8221;French Revolution&#8221;。<br><br><br>そして、フランス革命と言えば、「人権宣言」と「ギロチン」。<br><br>人権を無視していた人たちには、ギロチンがプレゼントされました。<br><br><br><br>というわけで、<br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">1789年の夏、立ち上がった農民たちによって、この「フランス人権宣言」 &#8220;<strong>Declaration of the Rights of the Man and of the Citizen</strong>&#8221; がなされた２年後の、1791年憲法によって、フランスでは「<strong>三権分立</strong>」が具体化されます。</h4>



<p><br><br>この時は、&#8221;legislation&#8221; は国民議会、&#8221;judiciary&#8221; は国民に選ばれた裁判官、&#8221;executive&#8221; は国王ということで、国王が３つの権限のうちの１つを握っていましたが、翌年の1792年には王政が廃止されて「<strong>共和制</strong>」&#8221;<strong>republic</strong>&#8221; となり、1795年憲法によって、共和政府としての三権分立が成立します。<br><br><br><br>ここで始まった「第一共和政」から、時代とともに何度も政権交代が繰り返され、1958年にド・ゴールさんが大統領になってから今に至るまでのカタチは「第五共和政」と呼ばれています。<br><br><br>* 政体の場合は「共和政」、制度の場合は「共和制」として表しています。<br><br><br><br><br>フランスもイギリスや日本と同様、議会が上院と下院とによって構成されていて、下院（国民議会）の方に力があります。<br><br></p>



<div class="wp-block-cocoon-blocks-balloon-ex-box-1 speech-wrap sb-id-13 sbs-stn sbp-r sbis-cn cf block-box"><div class="speech-person"><figure class="speech-icon"><img decoding="async" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/09/bubble-0001.jpg" alt="" class="speech-icon-image"/></figure><div class="speech-name"></div></div><div class="speech-balloon">
<p>そしてこの下院から首相 &#8220;Prime minister&#8221; が選ばれるわけですが、行政 &#8220;executive&#8221; がこの首相と、国民選挙によって選ばれる大統領 &#8220;President&#8221; の両方の手によって行われるので、「二頭制」と呼ばれています。</p>
</div></div>



<p><br><br>でもって結局のところ三権分立はどうなってるんだ？って事ですが&#8230;<br><br></p>



<h5 class="wp-block-heading">大統領は国民議会を解散する権限を持っていますし、首相も国民議会によって決まった法律に対して拒否権 &#8220;veto&#8221; を持っている。&#8221;judiciary&#8221; も &#8220;legislation&#8221; で通った法案の合憲性をチェックする権限を持っている事などから、三権がパリッと分立しているわけではなさそうです。</h5>



<p><br></p>



<div class="wp-block-cocoon-blocks-balloon-ex-box-1 speech-wrap sb-id-16 sbs-stn sbp-r sbis-cn cf block-box"><div class="speech-person"><figure class="speech-icon"><img decoding="async" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/09/bubble-0004.jpg" alt="" class="speech-icon-image"/></figure><div class="speech-name"></div></div><div class="speech-balloon">
<p>ちなみに &#8220;<strong>veto</strong>&#8221; [viːtəʊ] は名詞で「拒否権」または「拒否」、動詞で提案、議案などを「拒否する」の意味になりますが、これも政治関連の記事ではよく出てくるボキャブラリーなので、おさえておいたほうがいいですね。</p>
</div></div>



<p></p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading"><span id="toc7">アメリカ</span></h3>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="468" height="314" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/03/ally-thomas.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-13682" srcset="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/03/ally-thomas.jpg 468w, https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/03/ally-thomas-300x201.jpg 300w" sizes="(max-width: 468px) 100vw, 468px" /><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">image by Ally Thomas</figcaption></figure>



<p>アメリカは、<strong>三権がかなりの割合で分立しています</strong>。</p>



<p>日本やイギリスのように、議院内閣制をとっているわけではないので、立法と行政がくっついていません。</p>



<p>&#8220;legislation&#8221; を「<strong>連邦議会</strong>」が、&#8221;judiciary&#8221; を「<strong>連邦裁判所</strong>」が、そして &#8220;executive&#8221; を「<strong>大統領</strong>」が引っ張っていきます。<br><br></p>



<h5 class="wp-block-heading">アメリカの大統領は、法案を議会に提出することはできませんし、議会に参加もできません。</h5>



<p><br><br> 議会 &#8220;congress&#8221; で決まったことに対して &#8220;veto&#8221; を持ってはいますが、こうなった場合、議会の両院 (上院 &#8220;<strong>the Senate</strong>&#8221; と下院 &#8220;<strong>the House of Representative</strong>&#8220;) で、３分の２以上の多数で再可決された場合、その議案は大統領のサインなしで法律化させることができてしまいます。<br><br><br>あと、「おい、コラッ。お前んところとは戦争じゃ！」と、いくら大統領が息巻いたところで、戦争するかしないかの決断権は、議会が握っています。<br><br></p>



<p>ただ、「ちょっとここオーバーラップしてんのちゃうん？」というポイントを１つ上げるとすれば&#8230;<br><br><br>副大統領 &#8220;Vice President&#8221; は同時に「上院議長」を務めているってことになっているのですが、普段は大統領のアドバイザー、議会や国民を説得する役割で忙しいため、上院議長のポジションには仮議長という形で多数党の議員がその椅子に座って代行しています。<br><br><br>しかしながら、</p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">上院で採決が可否同数になった際には、ケリをつけるために副大統領が上院議員長となって最後の一票を入れるために現れる。</h4>



<p><br>という部分に関しては、 &#8220;executive&#8221; と &#8220;legislation&#8221; がつながってる感がありますかね。<br><br></p>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="411" height="273" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/03/marco-oriolesi.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-14004" srcset="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/03/marco-oriolesi.jpg 411w, https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/03/marco-oriolesi-300x199.jpg 300w" sizes="(max-width: 411px) 100vw, 411px" /><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">image by Marco Oriolesi</figcaption></figure>



<p><br><br>とまぁこんな感じで、どの国においても「三権分立」を基本としてはいますが、程度の差はあれ、格ブランチの役割がオーバーラップしているのが現実のようです。<br><br><br>どちらにしても、それぞれのブランチが勝手に暴走しないように、お互いを監視しあって、バランスをとっていこうという構造にはなっているみたいですね。<br><br><br><br><br><br>というわけで、今回は以上となります。<br><br><br>最後に、自分なりに「三権分立」とは何ぞや？に対する答えを、自分なりに英語でアウトプットしてみましょう。<br><br><br><br>それでは、お疲れ様でした。</p>



<p><br>コンカズ<br></p>



<p>*この記事の英語ヴァージョンはこちらから<br><br>👉 <a rel="noopener follow" target="_blank" href="https://www.konkaz.com/eigo-jiru-029-english/">【Separation of powers】Revising its definition as well as learning some related English vocabularies.《Eigo-jiru vol.29》</a></p>
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			</item>
		<item>
		<title>“Personal pronouns?” Let’s secretly revise them with some examples! 《Eigo-jiru vol.28》</title>
		<link>https://www.konkaz.com/eigo-jiru-028-english/</link>
		
		<dc:creator><![CDATA[konkaz]]></dc:creator>
		<pubDate>Thu, 09 Feb 2023 10:18:07 +0000</pubDate>
				<category><![CDATA[英語汁 / Eigo-jiru]]></category>
		<guid isPermaLink="false">https://www.konkaz.com/?p=13271</guid>

					<description><![CDATA[Here is a brief summary of "personal pronouns". You might not need to acquire the knowledge of English grammatical terminologies if you are already able to speak English to some degree, however, revising this can organize what you already have in your head.]]></description>
										<content:encoded><![CDATA[
<p><br><br>Hi! It’s konkaz (<a rel="noopener nofollow" target="_blank" href="https://twitter.com/konkazuk"><strong>@konkazuk</strong></a>) here.<br> <br><br>“<strong>Personal pronoun</strong>” is featured in this blog post for those who would like to revise the area.<br><br></p>



<div class="wp-block-cocoon-blocks-balloon-ex-box-1 speech-wrap sb-id-17 sbs-stn sbp-r sbis-cn cf block-box"><div class="speech-person"><figure class="speech-icon"><img decoding="async" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/09/bubble-0002.jpg" alt="" class="speech-icon-image"/></figure><div class="speech-name"></div></div><div class="speech-balloon">
<p>My focus has always been on developing my speaking skills, so I do not know much about English grammatical terminologies in Japanese, to be honest.</p>
</div></div>



<p><br>Therefore, here, I have given a brief summary of “personal pronouns”, which we had learnt during the years of compulsory education.</p>



<p>If you think that your memory of this area has become fuzzy, it will take only a few minutes to read this through, so let us just recall the meaning and the usage of some terminologies here.</p>



<p></p>



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  <div id="toc" class="toc tnt-none toc-center tnt-none border-element"><input type="checkbox" class="toc-checkbox" id="toc-checkbox-5"><label class="toc-title" for="toc-checkbox-5">目次</label>
    <div class="toc-content">
    <ul class="toc-list open"><li><a href="#toc1" tabindex="0"><strong>What is “Personal pronoun” anyway?</strong></a></li><li><a href="#toc2" tabindex="0"><strong>What are “First person” and “Second person” in English?</strong></a></li><li><a href="#toc3" tabindex="0"><strong>What is “Third person” then?</strong></a></li><li><a href="#toc4" tabindex="0"><strong>How do personal pronouns work?</strong></a><ul><li><a href="#toc5" tabindex="0">Subjective case</a></li><li><a href="#toc6" tabindex="0">Possessive case</a></li><li><a href="#toc7" tabindex="0">Objective case</a></li><li><a href="#toc8" tabindex="0">Possessive pronoun</a></li><li><a href="#toc9" tabindex="0">Reflexive pronoun</a></li></ul></li><li><a href="#toc10" tabindex="0">Summary</a></li></ul>
    </div>
  </div>

<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><span id="toc1"><strong>What is “Personal pronoun” anyway?</strong></span></h2>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="510" height="340" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/nagara-oyodo.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-13275" srcset="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/nagara-oyodo.jpg 510w, https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/nagara-oyodo-300x200.jpg 300w" sizes="(max-width: 510px) 100vw, 510px" /><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">image by Nagara Oyodo</figcaption></figure>



<p>Speaking of “pronouns”, what we generally associate with are, I guess, the words such as “a-re” (that) and “so-re&#8221; (it) that are used to point something instead of calling things by name.<br><br><br>“<strong>Personal pronouns</strong>” are the ones such as “anata” (you), “watashi” (I) and “kanojo-ra” (her) that are used when we refer to people without calling by name.<br><br><br>They are categorized by person and there are three types.<strong><br></strong></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">🔹 <strong>First person</strong><br>🔹 <strong>Second person</strong><br>🔹 <strong>Third person</strong></h4>



<p><br></p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><span id="toc2"><strong>What are “First person” and “Second person” in English?</strong></span></h2>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="510" height="355" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/Vihar-Andonov.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-13276" srcset="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/Vihar-Andonov.jpg 510w, https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/Vihar-Andonov-300x209.jpg 300w" sizes="(max-width: 510px) 100vw, 510px" /><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">image by Vihar Andonov</figcaption></figure>



<p>Right.<br><br>We are going to have a look at “First person” and “Second person”.<br></p>



<p>First, imagine you are having&nbsp;<strong>one on one</strong>&nbsp;conversation with someone.</p>



<p>As you might have guessed, the “<strong>first person</strong>” is the speaker of the two and is generally expressed as “boku” or “ore” or “watashi” that are equivalent of “<strong>I</strong>” in English.<br><br><br>The “<strong>second person</strong>” is the person who is spoken to, and is expressed as “kimi” or “anata” or “omae” that are equivalent of “<strong>you</strong>” in English. <br><br><br><strong>I</strong> (watashi) like <strong>you</strong> (anata).<br><br><strong>I</strong> (watashi) hate <strong>you</strong> (anata).<br><br><strong>I</strong> (watashi) am talking about <strong>you</strong> (anata).<br><br><br><br>And in this case, because a single human being “<strong>I</strong>” is speaking to the other single human being “<strong>you</strong>”, these are treated as “<strong>singular</strong>”, therefore they are categorized as&#8230;<strong><br></strong></p>



<h5 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>I&nbsp;&nbsp;=&nbsp;&nbsp;First person singular<br>you&nbsp;&nbsp;=&nbsp;&nbsp;Second person singular</strong></h5>



<p><br><br>On the other hand, there are those personal pronouns that are used for referring to more than one person such as “jibun-tachi” or “watachi-tachi” (First person) that are equivalent of “<strong>we</strong>” in English and also “anata-tachi” (Second person) that is equivalent of “<strong>you</strong>” in English (although its form is the same as its singular one). <br><br><br><br>In this case, they are categorized as&#8230;</p>



<h5 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>we&nbsp;&nbsp;=&nbsp;&nbsp;First person plural</strong><br><strong>you&nbsp;&nbsp;=&nbsp;&nbsp;Second person plural</strong></h5>



<p><br></p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><span id="toc3"><strong>What is “Third person” then?</strong></span></h2>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="510" height="360" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/Alexa.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-13277" srcset="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/Alexa.jpg 510w, https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/Alexa-300x212.jpg 300w" sizes="(max-width: 510px) 100vw, 510px" /><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">image by Alexa</figcaption></figure>



<p>The third person refers to everything other than “jibun/anata” or “jibun-tachi/anata-tachi”.&nbsp;</p>



<p>In other words,<br><br><strong>Everything but first person &amp; second person is categorized as “third person”.</strong><br><br><strong><br></strong><br>And earlier, I mentioned that personal pronouns are used “when we refer to people”, however, when it comes to the third person, since its definition is <br><strong><br><br>“Everything but first person &amp; second person”</strong><br><strong><br></strong><br>“<strong>animals</strong>” such as dogs and cats, “<strong>things/matters</strong>” such as tables, computers, accidents and environment and even “<strong>pronouns</strong>” such as it, that, etc. are also included.<br><br><br></p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><span id="toc4"><strong>How do personal pronouns work?</strong></span></h2>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="510" height="317" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/PIRO.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-13278" srcset="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/PIRO.jpg 510w, https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/PIRO-300x186.jpg 300w" sizes="(max-width: 510px) 100vw, 510px" /><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">image by PIRO</figcaption></figure>



<p>Personal pronouns can be classified into three categories which are “<strong>subjective case</strong>”, “<strong>possessive case</strong>” and “<strong>objective case</strong>” and each has got its function.<br></p>



<p><br>If we look at them with regard to first person singular, they are&#8230;</p>



<h5 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Subjective case</strong>&nbsp;&nbsp;“<strong>I</strong>”&nbsp;&nbsp;&#8230;is used for the subject of verbs.<br><strong>Possessive case</strong>&nbsp;&nbsp;“<strong>my</strong>”&nbsp;&nbsp;&#8230;represents something that is owned and tells us who the owner is.<br><strong>Objective case</strong>&nbsp;&nbsp;“<strong>me</strong>”&nbsp;&nbsp;&#8230;is used when the personal pronoun is an object that can be direct/indirect or object of prepositions.</h5>



<p><br><br>And in addition to these three cases, there are also two more types of personal pronouns that are called “<strong>possessive pronoun</strong>” and “<strong>reflexive pronoun</strong>”.</p>



<h5 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Possessive pronoun</strong>&nbsp;&nbsp;“<strong>mine</strong>”&nbsp;&nbsp;&#8230;represents something that is owned and tells us who the owner is, and it can be used independently unlike the possessive case of personal pronouns  that are followed by nouns.<br><br><strong>Reflexive pronoun</strong>&nbsp;&nbsp;“<strong>myself</strong>”&nbsp;&nbsp;&#8230;refers back to the subject.</h5>



<p><br><br><br>Below is a table showing the personal pronouns by case and person.<br><br></p>



<figure class="wp-block-table"><div class="scrollable-table"><table><tbody><tr><td class="has-text-align-center" data-align="center"></td><td class="has-text-align-center" data-align="center"><strong>Subjective Case</strong></td><td class="has-text-align-center" data-align="center"><strong>Possessive Case</strong></td><td class="has-text-align-center" data-align="center"><strong>Objective Case</strong></td><td class="has-text-align-center" data-align="center"><strong>Possessive Pronouns</strong></td><td class="has-text-align-center" data-align="center"><strong>Reflexive Pronouns</strong></td></tr><tr><td class="has-text-align-center" data-align="center"><strong>First Person </strong>(singular)</td><td class="has-text-align-center" data-align="center">I</td><td class="has-text-align-center" data-align="center">my</td><td class="has-text-align-center" data-align="center">me </td><td class="has-text-align-center" data-align="center">mine</td><td class="has-text-align-center" data-align="center">myself</td></tr><tr><td class="has-text-align-center" data-align="center"><strong>Second Person</strong><br>(singular)</td><td class="has-text-align-center" data-align="center">you</td><td class="has-text-align-center" data-align="center">your</td><td class="has-text-align-center" data-align="center">you</td><td class="has-text-align-center" data-align="center">yours</td><td class="has-text-align-center" data-align="center">yourself</td></tr><tr><td class="has-text-align-center" data-align="center"><strong>Third Person</strong> <strong>♂</strong> (singular)</td><td class="has-text-align-center" data-align="center">he</td><td class="has-text-align-center" data-align="center">his</td><td class="has-text-align-center" data-align="center">him</td><td class="has-text-align-center" data-align="center">his</td><td class="has-text-align-center" data-align="center">himself</td></tr><tr><td class="has-text-align-center" data-align="center"><strong>Third Person</strong> <strong>♀</strong><br>(singular)</td><td class="has-text-align-center" data-align="center">she </td><td class="has-text-align-center" data-align="center">her</td><td class="has-text-align-center" data-align="center">her</td><td class="has-text-align-center" data-align="center">hers</td><td class="has-text-align-center" data-align="center">herself</td></tr><tr><td class="has-text-align-center" data-align="center"><strong>Third Person</strong> neutral<br>(singular)</td><td class="has-text-align-center" data-align="center">it</td><td class="has-text-align-center" data-align="center">it</td><td class="has-text-align-center" data-align="center">its</td><td class="has-text-align-center" data-align="center">&#8211;</td><td class="has-text-align-center" data-align="center">itself</td></tr><tr><td class="has-text-align-center" data-align="center"><strong>First Person</strong><br>(plural)</td><td class="has-text-align-center" data-align="center">we</td><td class="has-text-align-center" data-align="center">our</td><td class="has-text-align-center" data-align="center">us</td><td class="has-text-align-center" data-align="center">ours</td><td class="has-text-align-center" data-align="center">ourselves</td></tr><tr><td class="has-text-align-center" data-align="center"><strong>Second Person</strong><br>(plural)</td><td class="has-text-align-center" data-align="center">you</td><td class="has-text-align-center" data-align="center">your</td><td class="has-text-align-center" data-align="center">you</td><td class="has-text-align-center" data-align="center">yours</td><td class="has-text-align-center" data-align="center">yourselves</td></tr><tr><td class="has-text-align-center" data-align="center"><strong>Third Person</strong><br>(plural)</td><td class="has-text-align-center" data-align="center">they </td><td class="has-text-align-center" data-align="center">their</td><td class="has-text-align-center" data-align="center">them</td><td class="has-text-align-center" data-align="center">theirs</td><td class="has-text-align-center" data-align="center">themselves</td></tr></tbody></table></div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption"><br><br><br></figcaption></figure>



<p>Now, let’s have a look at them one by one with example sentences.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading"><span id="toc5">Subjective case</span></h3>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full is-resized"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/alexander-stein.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-13281" width="455" height="304" srcset="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/alexander-stein.jpg 454w, https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/alexander-stein-300x200.jpg 300w" sizes="(max-width: 455px) 100vw, 455px" /><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">image by Alexander Stein</figcaption></figure>



<p><br>🔹 <strong>First person</strong></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>singular</strong><br><br> <strong>I</strong> like your jacket.<br><br><br><strong>plural</strong><br><br><strong>We</strong> don&#8217;t know his name.</h4>



<p><br><br>🔹 <strong>Second person</strong></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>singular</strong><br><br><strong>You</strong> have met Simon before, haven&#8217;t you?<br><br><br><strong>plural</strong><br><br><strong>You</strong> are not allowed here.</h4>



<p><br><br>🔹 <strong>Third person</strong></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>singular</strong><br><br><strong>She</strong> will be late.<br><br><br><strong>singular</strong><br><br>What time does the show start?  I&#8217;m afraid <strong>it</strong> finished a couple of hours ago.<br><br><br><strong>plural</strong><br><br><strong>They</strong> are plotting a riot.</h4>



<p></p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading"><span id="toc6">Possessive case</span></h3>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="454" height="303" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/steve-adcock.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-13282" srcset="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/steve-adcock.jpg 454w, https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/steve-adcock-300x200.jpg 300w" sizes="(max-width: 454px) 100vw, 454px" /><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">image by Steve Adcock</figcaption></figure>



<p><br>🔹 <strong>First person</strong></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>singular</strong><br><br>It&#8217;s <strong>my</strong> turn!<br><br><br><strong>plural</strong><br><br><strong>Our</strong> daughter&#8217;s birthday is next week.</h4>



<p><br><br>🔹 <strong>Second person</strong></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>singular</strong><br><br>What&#8217;s <strong>your</strong> name?<br><br><br><strong>plural</strong><br><br><strong>Your</strong> team will be playing against our team from 14:00pm at C court.</h4>



<p><br><br>🔹 <strong>Third person</strong></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>singular</strong><br><br><strong>His</strong> beard has grown.<br><br><br><strong>singular</strong><br><br>You can&#8217;t judge a book by <strong>its</strong> cover.<br><br><br><strong>plural</strong><br><br>I like <strong>their</strong> 3rd album the best!</h4>



<p></p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading"><span id="toc7">Objective case</span></h3>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="454" height="303" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/nikki-luijpers.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-13283" srcset="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/nikki-luijpers.jpg 454w, https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/nikki-luijpers-300x200.jpg 300w" sizes="(max-width: 454px) 100vw, 454px" /><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">image by Nikki Luijpers</figcaption></figure>



<p><br>🔹 <strong>First person</strong></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>singular</strong><br><br>Can you pass <strong>me</strong> the salt please?<br><br><br><strong>plural</strong><br><br>Let <strong>us</strong> know if you have any questions?</h4>



<p><br><br>🔹 <strong>Second person</strong></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>singular</strong><br><br>I will pick <strong>you</strong> up on my way home.<br><br><br><strong>plural</strong><br><br>It will be difficult for us to find <strong>you</strong> in such a huge venue.</h4>



<p><br><br>🔹 <strong>Third person</strong></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>singular</strong><br><br>Don&#8217;t worry. I&#8217;m sure they will catch <strong>him</strong> at some point.<br><br><br><strong>singular</strong><br><br>I&#8217;m not feeling well, so I&#8217;ll give <strong>it</strong> a pass this time.<br><br><br><strong>plural</strong><br><br>Look at <strong>them</strong>. They are coming back.</h4>



<p></p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading"><span id="toc8">Possessive pronoun</span></h3>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="454" height="303" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/Stephen-cruickshank.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-13284" srcset="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/Stephen-cruickshank.jpg 454w, https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/Stephen-cruickshank-300x200.jpg 300w" sizes="(max-width: 454px) 100vw, 454px" /><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">image by Stephen Cruickshank</figcaption></figure>



<p><br>🔹 <strong>First person</strong> + <strong>Second person</strong> (mixed)</p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>singular</strong><br><br>They are <strong>mine</strong>, not <strong>yours</strong>!<br><br><br><strong>plural</strong><br><br><strong>Yours</strong> look OK, but <strong>ours</strong> are completely broken.</h4>



<p><br><br>🔹 <strong>Third person</strong></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>singular</strong><br><br>You better ask her directly because this is actually <strong>hers</strong>.<br><br><br><strong>plural</strong><br><br>A friend of <strong>theirs</strong> is visiting their office this afternoon.</h4>



<p></p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading"><span id="toc9">Reflexive pronoun</span></h3>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="482" height="312" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/Julita-1.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-13285" srcset="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/Julita-1.jpg 482w, https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/Julita-1-300x194.jpg 300w" sizes="(max-width: 482px) 100vw, 482px" /><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">image by Julita</figcaption></figure>



<p><br>🔹 <strong>First person</strong></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>singular</strong><br><br>I was talking to <strong>myself</strong>.<br><br><br><strong>plural</strong><br><br>We assembled this furniture <strong>ourselves</strong>.</h4>



<p><br><br>🔹 <strong>Second person</strong></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>singular</strong><br><br>Take good care of <strong>yourself.</strong><br><br><br><strong>plural</strong><br><br>You must sort this out <strong>yourselves</strong>.</h4>



<p><br><br>🔹 <strong>Third person</strong></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>singular</strong><br><br>She bought <strong>herself</strong> a yellow raincoat.<br><br><br><strong>singular</strong><br><br>The work <strong>itself</strong> was not so difficult.<br><br><br><strong>plural</strong><br><br>They didn&#8217;t know how to open the door <strong>themselves</strong>.</h4>



<p></p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><span id="toc10">Summary</span></h2>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="510" height="340" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/zoe-schaeffer-1.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-13286" srcset="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/zoe-schaeffer-1.jpg 510w, https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/zoe-schaeffer-1-300x200.jpg 300w" sizes="(max-width: 510px) 100vw, 510px" /><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">image by Zoe Schaeffer</figcaption></figure>



<p><br>To summarize this time&#8217;s article&#8230;<br><br></p>



<h5 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>3 types of person</strong><br><br><br>“<strong>First person</strong>”  ➡︎  the speaker<br><br>“<strong>Second person</strong>”  ➡︎  the person who is spoken to<br><br>“<strong>Third person</strong>”  ➡︎  everything including animals, things and matters but first person &amp; second person<br><br>* Personal pronouns can be singular or plural.<br><br><br><br><strong>Personal pronouns</strong><br><br><br><strong>➡︎  Subjective case</strong>  They are used for the subject of verbs.<br><br><strong>➡︎  Possessive case</strong>  They represent something that is owned and tells us who the owner is.<br><br><strong>➡︎  Objective case</strong>  They are used when the personal pronoun is an object that can be direct/indirect or object of prepositions.<br><br><br><strong>Possessive pronouns</strong>  <br><br>➡︎ They represent something that is owned and tells us who the owner is, and it can be used independently unlike the possessive case of personal pronouns that are followed by nouns.<br><br><strong>Reflexive pronouns</strong> <br><br>➡︎ They refer back to the subject.</h5>



<p><br><br>Having the knowledge of English grammatical terminologies might not be necessary for those who can speak English to some degree because that means you have already equipped the usage of it. However it could be useful for you to have it when you are going to explain things to beginners. <br><br><br><br>Bye now.<br><br><br>konkaz<br><br><br><br>You can read this blog post in Japanese from the link below.<br><br>👉 <a rel="noopener follow" target="_blank" href="https://www.konkaz.com/eigo-jiru-028/">英語の一人称、二人称、三人称を、もう一度こっそり確認する！《英語汁 第28号》</a></p>
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		<item>
		<title>英語の一人称、二人称、三人称を、もう一度こっそり確認する！《英語汁 第28号》</title>
		<link>https://www.konkaz.com/eigo-jiru-028/</link>
		
		<dc:creator><![CDATA[konkaz]]></dc:creator>
		<pubDate>Tue, 07 Feb 2023 21:42:23 +0000</pubDate>
				<category><![CDATA[英語汁 / Eigo-jiru]]></category>
		<guid isPermaLink="false">https://www.konkaz.com/?p=12606</guid>

					<description><![CDATA[人称代名詞についてまとめてあります。ここでの内容を知らなかったとしても、英語のスピーキングは可能ですが、知っておく事でアタマの中はスッキリします。]]></description>
										<content:encoded><![CDATA[
<p><br><br>どうも、コンカズ&nbsp;(<a rel="noopener nofollow" target="_blank" href="https://twitter.com/konkazuk"><strong>@konkazuk</strong></a>)&nbsp;です&nbsp;。</p>



<p>今回の記事の目的は、英語の「<strong>人称代名詞</strong>」の復習です。<br><br></p>



<div class="wp-block-cocoon-blocks-balloon-ex-box-1 speech-wrap sb-id-17 sbs-stn sbp-r sbis-cn cf block-box"><div class="speech-person"><figure class="speech-icon"><img decoding="async" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/09/bubble-0002.jpg" alt="" class="speech-icon-image"/></figure><div class="speech-name"></div></div><div class="speech-balloon">
<p>あまり大きな声では言えませんが、自分はスピーキングを上達させるための学習をメインでやってきたので、英語の文法用語の日本語の名称の知識がかなり弱いです。</p>
</div></div>



<p><br>というわけで、遠い昔に義務教育で習った「人称代名詞」についての理解を、もう一度深めるためにここにまとめてみました。</p>



<p>自分もちょっと記憶が怪しいかも？って思われた方は、すぐに読めますので、僕といっしょにササっとここで目を通して、用語の意味や使い方の記憶を復活させましょう。</p>



<p></p>



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<p></p>




  <div id="toc" class="toc tnt-none toc-center tnt-none border-element"><input type="checkbox" class="toc-checkbox" id="toc-checkbox-6"><label class="toc-title" for="toc-checkbox-6">目次</label>
    <div class="toc-content">
    <ul class="toc-list open"><li><a href="#toc1" tabindex="0"><strong>そもそも人称代名詞とは何ぞや？</strong></a></li><li><a href="#toc2" tabindex="0"><strong>英語の「一人称」と「二人称」とは？</strong></a></li><li><a href="#toc3" tabindex="0"><strong>では「三人称」とは？</strong></a></li><li><a href="#toc4" tabindex="0"><strong>人称代名詞の働き</strong><strong></strong></a><ul><li><a href="#toc5" tabindex="0">主格  (subjective case)</a></li><li><a href="#toc6" tabindex="0">所有格  (possessive case)</a></li><li><a href="#toc7" tabindex="0">目的格  (objective case)</a></li><li><a href="#toc8" tabindex="0">所有代名詞  (possessive pronoun)</a></li><li><a href="#toc9" tabindex="0">再帰代名詞  (reflexive pronoun)</a></li></ul></li><li><a href="#toc10" tabindex="0">まとめ</a></li></ul>
    </div>
  </div>

<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><span id="toc1"><strong>そもそも人称代名詞とは何ぞや？</strong></span></h2>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="510" height="340" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/01/nagara-oyodo.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-12608" srcset="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/01/nagara-oyodo.jpg 510w, https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/01/nagara-oyodo-300x200.jpg 300w" sizes="(max-width: 510px) 100vw, 510px" /><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">image by Nagara Oyodo</figcaption></figure>



<p>代名詞といえば、名詞をそのままの名称で呼ぶ代わりに使われる「あれ」や「それ」のことを指しますよね。<br><br><br>これが「人」をさす場合に、名前の代わりに使われる「あなた」「わたし」「彼女ら」などが<strong>人称代名詞</strong>、英語で&nbsp;“<strong>personal pronoun</strong>”&nbsp;と呼ばれるものです。</p>



<p><br>人称には<strong>３種類</strong>あって、<br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">🔹 <strong>一人称</strong>&nbsp;&nbsp;“<strong>First person</strong>”&nbsp;<br>🔹 <strong>二人称</strong>&nbsp;&nbsp;“<strong>Second person</strong>”&nbsp;<br>🔹 <strong>三人称</strong>&nbsp;&nbsp;“<strong>Third person</strong>”</h4>



<p>&nbsp;<br>と分類されます。<br><br><br></p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><span id="toc2"><strong>英語の「一人称」と「二人称」とは？</strong></span></h2>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="510" height="355" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/01/Vihar-Andonov-4.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-12615" srcset="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/01/Vihar-Andonov-4.jpg 510w, https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/01/Vihar-Andonov-4-300x209.jpg 300w" sizes="(max-width: 510px) 100vw, 510px" /><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">image by Vihar Andonov</figcaption></figure>



<p>はい。<br><br>というわけで、「一人称」と「二人称」について見ていきます。<br><br><br><br>まずはあなたが、誰かと<strong>１対１</strong>で話しているところを思い浮かべてみてください。<br><br></p>



<p>お察しの通り、&nbsp;<strong>一人称&nbsp;</strong>(英語で <strong>first person</strong>)&nbsp;ってのが、相手に向かって話している「<strong>自分</strong>」のことです。<br><br>英語で&nbsp;“<strong>I”</strong>&nbsp;にあたる「僕」や「俺」「私」ですね。<br><br></p>



<p><strong>二人称</strong>&nbsp;(英語で <strong>second person</strong>)&nbsp;ってのが、自分が話している「<strong>相手</strong>」のこと、つまり英語で&nbsp;“<strong>you</strong>” にあたる「君」や「あなた」「オマエ」ってことになります。<br><br><br></p>



<p><strong>I</strong>&nbsp;like&nbsp;<strong>you</strong>.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;　 <strong>私</strong>　（好き）➡︎&nbsp;&nbsp;  <strong>あなた</strong>を<br><br><strong>I</strong>&nbsp;hate&nbsp;<strong>you</strong>.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<strong>私</strong>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;(嫌い)&nbsp;&nbsp;➡︎&nbsp;&nbsp;  <strong>あなた</strong>を<br><br><strong>I</strong>&nbsp;am talking to&nbsp;<strong>you</strong>.　　<strong>私</strong>　&nbsp;(話している)&nbsp; ➡︎&nbsp;  &nbsp;<strong>あなた</strong>に<br><br><br><br>でもってこの場合、単独の人間「<strong>私</strong>」が、単独の人間「<strong>あなた</strong>」に話しかけているので、これらは「<strong>単数</strong>」として扱われ、<br></p>



<h5 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>I</strong>&nbsp; =&nbsp; <strong>一人称単数</strong><br><strong>you</strong>&nbsp; = &nbsp;<strong>二人称単数</strong></h5>



<p><br>と、カテゴライズされます。<br><br></p>



<p>これに対して、同じ一人称で、英語で&nbsp;”<strong>we</strong>” にあたる「自分たち」「私たち」そして二人称では (単数の形とかわりませんが&#8230;) ”<strong>you</strong>”「あなたたち」というふうに、グループ扱いのケースもありますよね。</p>



<p><br>この場合は「<strong>複数</strong>」として扱われ、</p>



<h5 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>we</strong> &nbsp;= &nbsp;<strong>一人称複数</strong><br><strong>you</strong>&nbsp; =&nbsp; <strong>二人称複数</strong></h5>



<p><br>というふうに、カテゴライズされます。<br><br><br></p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><span id="toc3"><strong>では「三人称」とは？</strong></span></h2>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="510" height="360" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/01/Alexa.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-12616" srcset="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/01/Alexa.jpg 510w, https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/01/Alexa-300x212.jpg 300w" sizes="(max-width: 510px) 100vw, 510px" /><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">image by Alexa</figcaption></figure>



<p>三人称は「自分・あなた」または「自分たち・あなたたち」以外、つまり&#8230;</p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>一人称・二人称以外は、すべて三人称</strong>&nbsp;(英語で<strong>the third person</strong>)</h4>



<p><br>にカテゴライズされます。<br><br><br></p>



<div class="wp-block-cocoon-blocks-balloon-ex-box-1 speech-wrap sb-id-13 sbs-stn sbp-r sbis-cn cf block-box"><div class="speech-person"><figure class="speech-icon"><img decoding="async" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/09/bubble-0001.jpg" alt="" class="speech-icon-image"/></figure><div class="speech-name"></div></div><div class="speech-balloon">
<p>日本語でいう「第三者」ってヤツですね。</p>
</div></div>



<p><br>冒頭で人称代名詞とは「人を指す場合」と述べましたが、三人称の場合は<br><br><br><br><strong>「一人称・二人称以外はすべて」</strong><br><br></p>



<p>ってことなんで、犬や猫などの「<strong>動物</strong>」、机やコンピューター、事故や環境などの「<strong>物事</strong>」、ソレまやアレなどの「<strong>代名詞</strong>」みたいなものまで含まれてきます。<br><br><br></p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><span id="toc4"><strong>人称代名詞の働き</strong><strong></strong></span></h2>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="510" height="317" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/01/PIRO-1.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-12618" srcset="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/01/PIRO-1.jpg 510w, https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/01/PIRO-1-300x186.jpg 300w" sizes="(max-width: 510px) 100vw, 510px" /><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">image by PIRO</figcaption></figure>



<p>人称代名詞はには、「<strong>主格</strong>」「<strong>所有格</strong>」「<strong>目的格</strong>」の３種類があり、それぞれの働きがあります。<br></p>



<p><br>一人称単数の場合で見てみると…<br></p>



<h5 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>主格</strong>&nbsp;&nbsp;&#8220;I&#8221;&nbsp;&nbsp;:&nbsp;文の主語として使われ、「〜は」「〜が」となる部分<br><strong>所有格</strong>&nbsp;&nbsp;&#8220;my&#8221;&nbsp;&nbsp;:&nbsp;名詞の前に置かれ、「〜の」となる部分<br><strong>目的格</strong>&nbsp;&nbsp;&#8220;me&#8221;&nbsp;&nbsp;:&nbsp;文の目的語として使われ、「〜を」「〜に」となる部分</h5>



<p><br><br><br>そして、これらの3種類に加えて、「<strong>所有代名詞</strong>」と「<strong>再帰代名詞</strong>」というものも存在します。<br></p>



<h5 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>所有代名詞&nbsp;&nbsp;</strong>&#8220;mine&#8221;&nbsp;&nbsp;:&nbsp;「〜のもの」という様に、名詞をともなう所有格とは違い、単独で使える。<br><strong>再帰代名詞</strong> &#8220;myself&#8221; : 「〜自身で」という様に、目的格が主格と同じ場合に使われる。</h5>



<p><br><br><br>これらをまとめると…</p>



<figure class="wp-block-table"><div class="scrollable-table"><table><tbody><tr><td class="has-text-align-center" data-align="center"></td><td class="has-text-align-center" data-align="center"><strong>主格</strong></td><td class="has-text-align-center" data-align="center"><strong>所有格</strong></td><td class="has-text-align-center" data-align="center"><strong>目的格</strong></td><td class="has-text-align-center" data-align="center"><strong>所有代名詞</strong></td><td class="has-text-align-center" data-align="center"><strong>再帰代名詞</strong></td></tr><tr><td class="has-text-align-center" data-align="center"><strong>一人称</strong> (単数)</td><td class="has-text-align-center" data-align="center">I<br>(私は)</td><td class="has-text-align-center" data-align="center">my<br>(私の)</td><td class="has-text-align-center" data-align="center">me<br>(私を)</td><td class="has-text-align-center" data-align="center">mine<br>(私のもの)</td><td class="has-text-align-center" data-align="center">myself<br>(私自身)</td></tr><tr><td class="has-text-align-center" data-align="center"><strong>二人称</strong> (単数)</td><td class="has-text-align-center" data-align="center">you<br>(あなたは)</td><td class="has-text-align-center" data-align="center">your<br>(あなたの)</td><td class="has-text-align-center" data-align="center">you<br>(あなたを)</td><td class="has-text-align-center" data-align="center">yours<br>(あなたのもの)</td><td class="has-text-align-center" data-align="center">yourself<br>(自身)</td></tr><tr><td class="has-text-align-center" data-align="center"><strong>三人称</strong> (単数)  <strong>♂</strong></td><td class="has-text-align-center" data-align="center">he<br>(彼は)</td><td class="has-text-align-center" data-align="center">his<br>(彼の)</td><td class="has-text-align-center" data-align="center">him<br>(彼を)</td><td class="has-text-align-center" data-align="center">his<br>(彼のもの)</td><td class="has-text-align-center" data-align="center">himself<br>(彼自身)</td></tr><tr><td class="has-text-align-center" data-align="center"><strong>三人称</strong> (単数)  <strong>♀</strong></td><td class="has-text-align-center" data-align="center">she<br>(彼女は)</td><td class="has-text-align-center" data-align="center">her<br>(彼女の)</td><td class="has-text-align-center" data-align="center">her<br>(彼女を)</td><td class="has-text-align-center" data-align="center">hers<br>(彼女のもの)</td><td class="has-text-align-center" data-align="center">herself<br>(彼女自身)</td></tr><tr><td class="has-text-align-center" data-align="center"><strong>三人称</strong> (単数) <strong>中性</strong></td><td class="has-text-align-center" data-align="center">it<br>(それは)</td><td class="has-text-align-center" data-align="center">it<br>(それの)</td><td class="has-text-align-center" data-align="center">its<br>(それを)</td><td class="has-text-align-center" data-align="center">&#8211;</td><td class="has-text-align-center" data-align="center">itself<br>(それ自身)</td></tr><tr><td class="has-text-align-center" data-align="center"><strong>一人称</strong> (複数)</td><td class="has-text-align-center" data-align="center">we<br>(私達は)</td><td class="has-text-align-center" data-align="center">our<br>(私達の)</td><td class="has-text-align-center" data-align="center">us<br>(私達を)</td><td class="has-text-align-center" data-align="center">ours<br>(私達のもの)</td><td class="has-text-align-center" data-align="center">ourselves<br>(私達自身)</td></tr><tr><td class="has-text-align-center" data-align="center"><strong>二人称</strong> (複数)</td><td class="has-text-align-center" data-align="center">you<br>(あなた達は)</td><td class="has-text-align-center" data-align="center">your<br>(あなた達の)</td><td class="has-text-align-center" data-align="center">you<br>(あなた達を)</td><td class="has-text-align-center" data-align="center">yours<br>(あなた達のもの)</td><td class="has-text-align-center" data-align="center">yourselves <br>(あなた達自身)</td></tr><tr><td class="has-text-align-center" data-align="center"><strong>三人称</strong> (複数)</td><td class="has-text-align-center" data-align="center">they<br>(彼ら/彼女は)</td><td class="has-text-align-center" data-align="center">their<br>(彼ら/彼女らの)</td><td class="has-text-align-center" data-align="center">them<br>(彼ら/彼女らを)</td><td class="has-text-align-center" data-align="center">theirs<br>(彼ら/彼女らのもの)</td><td class="has-text-align-center" data-align="center">theirselves<br>(彼ら/彼女ら自身)</td></tr></tbody></table></div></figure>



<p>という感じになります。<br><br><br><br>というわけで、ここで３つの「格」「所有代名詞」「再帰代名詞」を、種類ごとに例文で見ていきます。</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading"><span id="toc5">主格  (subjective case)</span></h3>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="454" height="303" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/01/alexander-stein.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-13024" srcset="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/01/alexander-stein.jpg 454w, https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/01/alexander-stein-300x200.jpg 300w" sizes="(max-width: 454px) 100vw, 454px" /><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">image by Alexander Stein</figcaption></figure>



<p>🔹 <strong>一人称</strong></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>単数</strong><br><br> <strong>I</strong> like your jacket.<br>「<strong>僕は</strong>、君のジャケット好きだよ。」<br><br><strong>複数</strong> <br><br><strong>We</strong> don&#8217;t know his name.<br>「<strong>私たちは</strong>、彼の名前を知らない。」</h4>



<p><br>🔹 <strong>二人称</strong></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>単数</strong><br><br><strong>You</strong> have met Simon before, haven&#8217;t you?<br>「<strong>あなたは</strong>、サイモンに以前会ったことがありますよね？」<br><br><strong>複数</strong> <br><br><strong>You</strong> are not allowed here.<br>「<strong>あなた達は</strong>ここにいちゃだめだよ。」</h4>



<p><br>🔹 <strong>三人称</strong></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>単数</strong><br><br><strong>She</strong> will be late.<br>「<strong>彼女は</strong>遅れる。」<br><br><strong>単数</strong><br><br>What time does the show start?  I&#8217;m afraid <strong>it</strong> finished a couple of hours ago.<br>「そのショーは何時に始まるの？」「残念ですが、<strong>それは</strong>2時間前に終了いたしました。」<br><br><strong>複数</strong><br><br><strong>They</strong> are plotting a riot.<br>「<strong>彼らは</strong>、暴動をたくらんでいる。」</h4>



<p></p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading"><span id="toc6">所有格  (possessive case)</span></h3>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="454" height="303" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/01/steve-adcock.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-13025" srcset="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/01/steve-adcock.jpg 454w, https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/01/steve-adcock-300x200.jpg 300w" sizes="(max-width: 454px) 100vw, 454px" /><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">image by Steve Adcock</figcaption></figure>



<p>🔹 <strong>一人称</strong></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>単数</strong><br><br>It&#8217;s <strong>my</strong> turn!<br>「<strong>私の</strong>番よ！」<br><br><strong>複数</strong><br><br><strong>Our</strong> daughter&#8217;s birthday is next week.<br>「<strong>私達の</strong>娘の誕生日は、来週です。」</h4>



<p><br>🔹 <strong>二人称</strong></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>単数</strong><br><br>What&#8217;s <strong>your</strong> name?<br>「<strong>あなたの</strong>名前は？」<br><br><strong>複数</strong><br><br><strong>Your</strong> team will be playing against our team from 14:00pm at C court.<br>「<strong>あなた達の</strong>チームは、午後の２時からCコートで私達のチームと対戦する。」</h4>



<p><br>🔹 <strong>三人称</strong></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>単数</strong><br><br><strong>His</strong> beard has grown.<br>「<strong>彼の</strong>ひげが伸びている。」<br><br><strong>単数</strong><br><br>You can&#8217;t judge a book by <strong>its</strong> cover.<br>「本の内容を<strong>その</strong>表紙で判断することはできない。」<br><br><strong>複数</strong><br><br>I like <strong>their</strong> 3rd album the best!<br>「私は、<strong>彼らの</strong>３枚目のアルバムが１番好きだ。」</h4>



<p></p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading"><span id="toc7">目的格  (objective case)</span></h3>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="454" height="303" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/01/nikki-luijpers.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-13026" srcset="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/01/nikki-luijpers.jpg 454w, https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/01/nikki-luijpers-300x200.jpg 300w" sizes="(max-width: 454px) 100vw, 454px" /><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">image by Nikki Luijpers</figcaption></figure>



<p>🔹 <strong>一人称</strong></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>単数</strong><br><br>Can you pass <strong>me</strong> the salt please?<br>「その塩を<strong>私に</strong>とってくれませんか？」<br><br><strong>複数</strong><br><br>Let <strong>us</strong> know if you have any questions?<br>「もし質問があれば、<strong>私達に</strong>知らせてください。」<br></h4>



<p><br>🔹 <strong>二人称</strong></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>単数</strong><br><br>I will pick <strong>you</strong> up on my way home.<br>「家に帰る途中で、<strong>あなたを</strong>拾います。」<br><br><strong>複数</strong><br><br>It will be difficult for us to find <strong>you</strong> in such a huge venue.<br>「そんな大きな会場で、<strong>あなた達を</strong>見つけるのは難しいだろう。」</h4>



<p><br>🔹 <strong>三人称</strong></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>単数</strong><br><br>Don&#8217;t worry. I&#8217;m sure they will catch <strong>him</strong> at some point.<br>「心配しないで。彼らはそのうち絶対に<strong>彼を</strong>捕まえるよ。」<br><br><strong>単数</strong><br><br>I&#8217;m not feeling well, so I&#8217;ll give <strong>it</strong> a pass this time.<br>「ちょっと気分が冴えないから、今回は<strong>それを</strong>見送るよ。」<br><br><strong>複数</strong><br><br>Look at <strong>them</strong>. They are coming back.<br>「<strong>彼らを</strong>見てみろよ。戻ってくるぜ。」</h4>



<p></p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading"><span id="toc8">所有代名詞  (possessive pronoun)</span></h3>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="454" height="303" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/01/Stephen-cruickshank.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-13027" srcset="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/01/Stephen-cruickshank.jpg 454w, https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/01/Stephen-cruickshank-300x200.jpg 300w" sizes="(max-width: 454px) 100vw, 454px" /><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">image by Stephen Cruickshank</figcaption></figure>



<p>🔹 <strong>一人称</strong> + <strong>二人称</strong>   (ミックスされています)</p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>単数</strong><br><br>They are <strong>mine</strong>, not <strong>yours</strong>!<br>「それらは<strong>私のもの</strong>で、<strong>あなたのもの</strong>ではないわ！」<br><br><strong>複数</strong><br><br><strong>Yours</strong> look OK, but <strong>ours</strong> are completely broken.<br>「<strong>あなた達の</strong>は大丈夫そうだけど、<strong>私達の</strong>は完全に壊れている。」</h4>



<p><br>🔹 <strong>三人称</strong></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>単数</strong><br><br>You better ask her directly because this is actually <strong>hers</strong>.<br>「彼女に直接聞いた方がいいよ、なぜならこれは実際のところ<strong>彼女のもの</strong>だから。」<br><br><strong>複数</strong><br><br>A friend of <strong>theirs</strong> is visiting their office this afternoon.<br>「<strong>彼らの</strong>友達の１人が、今日の午後に彼らのオフィスを訪問することになっています。</h4>



<p></p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading"><span id="toc9">再帰代名詞  (reflexive pronoun)</span></h3>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="482" height="312" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/Julita.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-13267" srcset="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/Julita.jpg 482w, https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/Julita-300x194.jpg 300w" sizes="(max-width: 482px) 100vw, 482px" /><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">image by Julita</figcaption></figure>



<p>🔹 <strong>一人称</strong></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>単数</strong><br><br>I was talking to <strong>myself</strong>.<br>「私は、<strong>私自身に</strong>話していた。」<br><br><strong>複数</strong><br><br>We assembled this furniture <strong>ourselves</strong>.<br>「私達は、<strong>私達自身で</strong>この家具を組み立てた。」</h4>



<p><br>🔹 <strong>二人称</strong></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>単数</strong><br><br>Take good care of <strong>yourself.<br></strong>「どうかご<strong>自</strong>愛ください。」<br><br><strong>複数</strong><br><br>You must sort this out <strong>yourselves</strong>.<br>「あなたは、これを<strong>自分自身で</strong>解決しなくてはならない。」</h4>



<p><br>🔹 <strong>三人称</strong></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>単数</strong><br><br>She bought <strong>herself</strong> a yellow raincoat.<br>「彼女は<strong>自分自身に</strong>黄色のレインコートを買った。」<br><br><strong>単数</strong><br><br>The work <strong>itself</strong> was not so difficult.<br>「仕事<strong>自体</strong>はそれほど難しいものではなかった。」<br><br><strong>複数</strong><br><br>They didn&#8217;t know how to open the door <strong>themselves</strong>.<br>「彼ら<strong>自身</strong>もどうやってドアを開けるのか知らなかった。」</h4>



<p><br><br>&#8230;とまぁ、こんな感じになります。<br><br><br></p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><span id="toc10">まとめ</span></h2>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="510" height="340" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/zoe-schaeffer.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-13191" srcset="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/zoe-schaeffer.jpg 510w, https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/zoe-schaeffer-300x200.jpg 300w" sizes="(max-width: 510px) 100vw, 510px" /><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">image by Zoe Schaeffer</figcaption></figure>



<p><br>今回の記事の要点をまとめると&#8230;<br></p>



<h5 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>３種類の人称</strong><br><br><strong>一人称</strong>   ➡︎   話し手 (自分)　<br><strong>二人称</strong>　➡︎   聞き手 (相手)<br><strong>三人称</strong>　➡︎  一人称、二人称以外のすべて (人・動物・モノ)<br><br>* 人称には単数と複数がある<br><br><br><strong>人称代名詞</strong>   <br><br>➡︎  <strong>主格</strong> (誰だれは・誰だれが）　<br>➡︎  <strong>所有格</strong> (誰だれの)<br>➡︎  <strong>目的格</strong> (誰だれに・誰だれを)<br><br><br><strong>所有代名詞</strong>　<br><br>➡︎  単独で所有を表す (誰だれのもの) <br><br><strong>再帰代名詞</strong>　<br><br>➡︎  目的格が主語と同じ時に用いる (〜自身)</h5>



<p><br>となります。<br><br><br><br><br>今回の知識は、あなたがそれなりに英語が自由に使えるようになったら、アタマの中に自然に備わっているということになるので、忘れてしまっても良いと言えますが、あなたが英語初心者に説明する際に役に立つので、心の片隅に残しておきましょう。<br><br><br><br>それではまた。<br><br><br>コンカズ<br></p>



<p>*この記事の英語ヴァージョンはこちらから<br><br>👉 <a rel="noopener follow" target="_blank" href="https://www.konkaz.com/eigo-jiru-028-english/">“Personal pronouns?” Let’s secretly revise them with some examples! 《Eigo-jiru vol.28》</a></p>
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		<title>【English question forms】Learning 3 fundamental types!《Eigo-jiru vol.27》</title>
		<link>https://www.konkaz.com/eigo-jiru-027-english/</link>
		
		<dc:creator><![CDATA[konkaz]]></dc:creator>
		<pubDate>Sat, 03 Dec 2022 16:28:09 +0000</pubDate>
				<category><![CDATA[英語汁 / Eigo-jiru]]></category>
		<guid isPermaLink="false">https://www.konkaz.com/?p=12047</guid>

					<description><![CDATA[Some basic ways to create question sentences are being checked on with this article. The content might be most appropriate for beginner levels, however, a good number of example-sentences can be of good use in self-talk practice for those who are fine with grammars more or less but not really confident when it comes to speaking.]]></description>
										<content:encoded><![CDATA[
<p><br><br>Hi! It’s konkaz (<a rel="noopener nofollow" target="_blank" href="https://twitter.com/konkazuk"><strong>@konkazuk</strong></a>) here.&nbsp;<br></p>



<p>We are going to have a look at some basic ways to create question sentences with this article.<br><br></p>



<div class="wp-block-cocoon-blocks-balloon-ex-box-1 speech-wrap sb-id-13 sbs-stn sbp-r sbis-cn cf block-box"><div class="speech-person"><figure class="speech-icon"><img decoding="async" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/09/bubble-0001.jpg" alt="" class="speech-icon-image"/></figure><div class="speech-name"></div></div><div class="speech-balloon">
<p>If you become good at questioning, you will be able to draw further information and this will lead you to deeper conversation, hence you will learn more!</p>
</div></div>



<p><br>The content of this blog post might be most appropriate for beginner levels, however, I have featured a good number of example-sentences that can be of good use in self-talk practice for those who are fine with grammars more or less but not really confident when it comes to speaking.<br><br><br><br>By reading them aloud over and over again, the patterns of question sentence will stick to your head, so please make the best use of them.<br></p>



<p></p>



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<p></p>




  <div id="toc" class="toc tnt-none toc-center tnt-none border-element"><input type="checkbox" class="toc-checkbox" id="toc-checkbox-7"><label class="toc-title" for="toc-checkbox-7">目次</label>
    <div class="toc-content">
    <ul class="toc-list open"><li><a href="#toc1" tabindex="0"><strong>Yes/No Questions</strong></a><ul><li><a href="#toc2" tabindex="0"><strong>Question form with Be-verb/modal verb</strong></a></li><li><a href="#toc3" tabindex="0"><strong>Question form with genral verb</strong></a></li><li><a href="#toc4" tabindex="0"><strong>Question sentence with perfect form</strong></a></li></ul></li><li><a href="#toc5" tabindex="0"><strong>Question sentences with interrogative words (Wh questions)</strong></a><ul><li><a href="#toc6" tabindex="0"><strong>What?</strong></a></li><li><a href="#toc7" tabindex="0"><strong>Who?</strong></a></li><li><a href="#toc8" tabindex="0"><strong>Where?</strong></a></li><li><a href="#toc9" tabindex="0"><strong>How?</strong></a></li><li><a href="#toc10" tabindex="0"><strong>Which?</strong></a></li></ul></li><li><a href="#toc11" tabindex="0"><strong>Indirect questions</strong></a></li></ul>
    </div>
  </div>

<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><span id="toc1"><strong>Yes/No Questions</strong></span></h2>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="510" height="338" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/12/alisa-olaivar.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-12048" srcset="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/12/alisa-olaivar.jpg 510w, https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/12/alisa-olaivar-300x199.jpg 300w" sizes="(max-width: 510px) 100vw, 510px" /><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">image by Alisa Olaivar</figcaption></figure>



<p>We begin with the most basic type of question that can be answered by “yes” or “no”.<br></p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading"><span id="toc2"><strong>Question form with Be-verb/modal verb</strong></span></h3>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="510" height="340" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/12/shubham-dhage-.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-12049" srcset="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/12/shubham-dhage-.jpg 510w, https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/12/shubham-dhage--300x200.jpg 300w" sizes="(max-width: 510px) 100vw, 510px" /><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">image by shubham phage</figcaption></figure>



<p>Here, we’re going to have a look at some question forms with “Be-verbs” as well as with ”modal verbs” such as “can” and “will”.<br><br><br><br>Let’s just start with simple affirmative sentences that begin with basic pronoun, for instance&#8230;<br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">This is my husband.</h4>



<p></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">This is how much I have in my bank account at the moment.</h4>



<p><br><br><br>To transform these sentences into the form of question, we swap the subject (pronoun) with Be-verb.<br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉  <strong>Is this</strong> my husband<strong>?</strong></h4>



<p></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉  <strong>Is this</strong> how much I have in my bank account at the moment<strong>?</strong></h4>



<p><br><br>When you write them down, you need to add a question mark at the end of the sentence.</p>



<p><br>The answer for these could be either “<strong>Yes, it is.</strong>” or “<strong>No, it isn’t.</strong>”<br></p>



<p><br>Anyway, please read the following affirmative sentences, and transform them into the form of question (and read them aloud!)<br><br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">It is wrong.</h4>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">It’s too late.</h4>



<p><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉  <strong>Is it</strong> wrong<strong>?</strong></h4>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉  <strong>Is it</strong> too late<strong>?</strong></h4>



<p><br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">That’s my cat.</h4>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">That’s my mobile phone.</h4>



<p><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉  <strong>Is that</strong> my cat<strong>?</strong></h4>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉  <strong>Is that</strong> my mobile phone<strong>?</strong></h4>



<p><br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">I am stupid.</h4>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">I am a bit tired today.</h4>



<p><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉  <strong>Am I</strong> stupid<strong>?</strong></h4>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉  <strong>Am I</strong> a bit tired today<strong>?</strong></h4>



<p><br><br>As for these two, the subject of the sentences is “<strong>I</strong>”, therefore, the answer can be “<strong>Yes, I am.</strong>” or “<strong>No, I’m not!</strong>”<br><br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">He is an alien.</h4>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">He is not a nice person.</h4>



<p><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉  <strong>Is he</strong> an alien<strong>?</strong></h4>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉  <strong>Is he</strong> not a nice person<strong>?</strong></h4>



<p><br><br>The answer for these questions could be either “<strong>Yes, he is.</strong>” or “<strong>No, he isn’t</strong>. (<strong>No, he’s not.</strong>)”<br><br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">They are mine.</h4>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">They are different.</h4>



<p><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉  <strong>Are they</strong> mine<strong>?</strong></h4>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉  <strong>Are they</strong> different<strong>?</strong></h4>



<p><br><br>The answer for these questions could be either “<strong>Yes, they are.</strong>” or “<strong>No, they aren’t.</strong> (<strong>No, they’re not.</strong>)”<br><br></p>



<div class="wp-block-cocoon-blocks-balloon-ex-box-1 speech-wrap sb-id-13 sbs-stn sbp-r sbis-cn cf block-box"><div class="speech-person"><figure class="speech-icon"><img decoding="async" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/09/bubble-0001.jpg" alt="" class="speech-icon-image"/></figure><div class="speech-name"></div></div><div class="speech-balloon">
<p>Are you reading the sentences <strong>aloud</strong> by the way?</p>
</div></div>



<p><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">She is the boss.</h4>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">She is good-looking.</h4>



<p><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉  <strong>Is she</strong> the boss<strong>?</strong></h4>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉  <strong>Is she</strong> good-looking<strong>?</strong></h4>



<p><br><br>You could answer to these questions either with “<strong>Yes, she is.</strong>” or “<strong>No, she isn’t.</strong> (<strong>No, she’s not.</strong>)”</p>



<p><br><br>And finally, when the subject of the sentence is “you”&#8230;<br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">You are hungry.</h4>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">You are Kate’s sister.</h4>



<p><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉  <strong>Are you</strong> hungry<strong>?</strong></h4>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉  <strong>Are you</strong> Kate’s sister<strong>?</strong></h4>



<p><br><br>So now, imagine these questions are for you, then you are going to answer like.. “<strong>Yes, I am</strong>” or “<strong>No, I’m not.</strong>”<br><br></p>



<div class="wp-block-cocoon-blocks-balloon-ex-box-1 speech-wrap sb-id-13 sbs-stn sbp-r sbis-cn cf block-box"><div class="speech-person"><figure class="speech-icon"><img decoding="async" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/09/bubble-0001.jpg" alt="" class="speech-icon-image"/></figure><div class="speech-name"></div></div><div class="speech-balloon">
<p>When you use “you” as a subject, you are basically talking to someone that is confronting you, so it’s not really an ideal shape for “self-talk” practice, however, if you are a man/woman of great imagination, you can do it to the person in a mirror (yourself) as long as you can keep your sanity. W</p>
</div></div>



<p><br><br>These example-sentences are not grammatically difficult ones at all, however, by applying various vocabularies and different situations to a form and reading each example aloud will eventually make yourself capable of creating a sentence reflectively in a real situation.<br><br></p>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="510" height="340" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/12/rick-gebhardt.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-12051" srcset="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/12/rick-gebhardt.jpg 510w, https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/12/rick-gebhardt-300x200.jpg 300w" sizes="(max-width: 510px) 100vw, 510px" /><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">image by rick-gebhardt</figcaption></figure>



<p><br>Well, let’s try them with <strong>past tense</strong> this time.<br><br>(Some sentences that will not make sense when the past tense is applied are being omitted.)</p>



<p><br>Be-verbs are to be changed like below with past tense.<br></p>



<h5 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>am</strong>&nbsp;&nbsp;👉&nbsp; <strong>was</strong><br><strong>are</strong>&nbsp;&nbsp;👉&nbsp;&nbsp;<strong>were</strong></h5>



<p><br><br>Now, please transform the following sentences into the question form. <br><br>(The question forms for the following example-sentences are not featured this time, by the way.)<br><br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">It was wrong.</h4>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">It’s too late.</h4>



<p><br><br>👉  <strong>？？？</strong><br><br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">That’s my cat.</h4>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">That’s my mobile phone.</h4>



<p><br><br>👉  <strong>？？？</strong><br><br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">I was stupid.</h4>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">I was a bit tired earlier today.</h4>



<p><br><br>👉  <strong>？？？</strong><br><br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">He was an alien.</h4>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">He was not a nice person.</h4>



<p><br><br>👉  <strong>？？？</strong><br><br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">They were mine.</h4>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">They were different.</h4>



<p><br><br>👉  <strong>？？？</strong><br><br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">She was the boss.</h4>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">She was good-looking.</h4>



<p><br><br>👉  <strong>？？？</strong><br><br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">You were hungry.</h4>



<p><br><br>👉  <strong>？？？</strong><br><br></p>



<p><br><br>How did you get on with them?<br><br></p>



<div class="wp-block-cocoon-blocks-balloon-ex-box-1 speech-wrap sb-id-16 sbs-stn sbp-r sbis-cn cf block-box"><div class="speech-person"><figure class="speech-icon"><img decoding="async" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/09/bubble-0004.jpg" alt="" class="speech-icon-image"/></figure><div class="speech-name"></div></div><div class="speech-balloon">
<p>These question sentences start with “Was” or “Were” and if you pucker up your mouth firmly when you pronounce the first letter “<strong>w</strong>”, it will sound more proper English.  ✨</p>
</div></div>



<p><br><br>Now, let’s apply some “modal verbs” such as “can” and “will” this time.</p>



<p><br>First, look at affirmative sentences and change their forms into the question and speak them out.<br><br>Do not look at the answers straight away!<br><br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">This can be devastating.</h4>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">This will be interesting.</h4>



<p><br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉  <strong>Can this</strong> be devastating<strong>?</strong></h4>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉  <strong>Will this</strong> be interesting<strong>?</strong></h4>



<p><br><br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">It might be right.</h4>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">It can be true.</h4>



<p><br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉  <strong>Might it</strong> be right<strong>?</strong></h4>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉  <strong>Can it</strong> be true<strong>?</strong></h4>



<p><br><br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">That will help us a lot.</h4>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">That can cause a serious problem.</h4>



<p><br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉  <strong>Will that</strong> help us a lot<strong>?</strong></h4>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉  <strong>Can that</strong> cause a serious problem<strong>?</strong></h4>



<p><br><br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">I can bear with her.</h4>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">I will feel sick if I read this book on the bus.</h4>



<p><br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉  <strong>Can I</strong> bear with her<strong>?</strong></h4>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉  <strong>Will I</strong> feel sick if I read this book on the bus<strong>?</strong></h4>



<p><br><br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">He can play the guitar.</h4>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">He will attend the meeting.</h4>



<p><br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉  <strong>Can he</strong> play the guitar<strong>?</strong></h4>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉  <strong>Will he</strong> attend the meeting<strong>?</strong> </h4>



<p><br><br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">They can finish this task by the end of the day.</h4>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">They are going to succeed.</h4>



<p><br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉  <strong>Can they</strong> finish this task by the end of the day<strong>?</strong></h4>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉  <strong>Are they</strong> going to succeed<strong>?</strong></h4>



<p><br><br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">She will agree with me.</h4>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">She will be able to come tomorrow’s party.</h4>



<p><br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉  <strong>Will she</strong> agree with me<strong>?</strong></h4>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉  <strong>Will she</strong> be able to come tomorrow’s party<strong>?</strong></h4>



<p><br><br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">You will remember my phone number.</h4>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">You might scream if you fail the exam.</h4>



<p><br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉  <strong>Will you</strong> remember my phone number<strong>?</strong></h4>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉  <strong>Might you</strong> scream if you fail the exam<strong>?</strong></h4>



<p><br><br>Did you manage to make them into the form of question?<br><br><br><br>The procedure you need to follow to create a form of question might be fairly simple, however, reading whole one sentence one after another must have required a bit of effort, I assume?<br><br></p>



<h5 class="wp-block-heading">Even reading these example-sentences aloud makes you realise that using your voice is crucially significant for developing your speaking skills, doesn’t it?</h5>



<p><br></p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading"><span id="toc3"><strong>Question form with genral verb</strong></span></h3>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="510" height="364" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/12/milad-fakurian.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-12054" srcset="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/12/milad-fakurian.jpg 510w, https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/12/milad-fakurian-300x214.jpg 300w" sizes="(max-width: 510px) 100vw, 510px" /><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">image by mild fakurian</figcaption></figure>



<p>Now, we are going to have a look at how question sentences are created from affirmative form whose verb is ordinary (no Be-verbs nor modal verbs).</p>



<p><br>Anyway, let’s check the following sentences out&#8230;<br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">Keith plays the guitar.</h4>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">Her older sister reads Japanese books.</h4>



<p><br><br>When these sentences are transformed into the shape of question, they will be&#8230;<br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉  <strong>Does Keith</strong> play the guitar<strong>?</strong></h4>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉  <strong>Does her older sister</strong> read Japanese books<strong>?</strong></h4>



<p><br><br><br>So, you basically put an auxiliary verb “<strong>Does</strong>” at the beginning of the sentence, bring the verb form back to its original and add a question mark at the end.<br></p>



<p><br>Then, how about the next ones?&nbsp;<br><br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">Keith and Ron play the guitar.</h4>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">Her older sisters read Japanese books.</h4>



<p><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉  <strong>Do Keith and Ron</strong> play the guitar<strong>?</strong></h4>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉  <strong>Do her older sisters</strong> read Japanese books<strong>?</strong></h4>



<p><br><br><br>This time, we place “<strong>Do</strong>” at the beginning of the sentence and put a question mark at the end of the sentence.<br><br></p>



<p>Therefore&#8230;<br></p>



<h5 class="wp-block-heading">When the subject is the third person singular, we use&nbsp;👉&nbsp;<strong>Does</strong><br>When the subject is anything other than the third person singular, we use&nbsp;👉&nbsp;<strong>Do</strong></h5>



<p><br><br>Let’s try some more sentences&#8230;<br><br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">Takeshi lives in Paris.</h4>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">She eats a lot.</h4>



<p><br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉  <strong>Does Takeshi</strong> live in Paris<strong>?</strong></h4>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉  <strong>Does she</strong> eat a lot<strong>?</strong></h4>



<p><br><br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">It dries quickly.</h4>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">She goes to bed early.</h4>



<p><br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉  <strong>Does it</strong> dry quickly<strong>?</strong></h4>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉  <strong>Does she</strong> go to bed early<strong>?</strong></h4>



<p><br><br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">Jack and Jess live together.</h4>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">Those people play basketball.</h4>



<p><br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉  <strong>Do Jack and Jess</strong> live together<strong>?</strong><br>(This can be “Do they live together?)</h4>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉  <strong>Do those people</strong> play basketball<strong>?</strong><br>(This also can be “Do they play basketball? depending on its context.)</h4>



<p><br><br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">It gives me a sense of freedom.</h4>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">They kill animals.</h4>



<p><br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉  <strong>Does it</strong> give me a sense of freedom<strong>?</strong></h4>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉  <strong>Do they</strong> kill animals<strong>?</strong></h4>



<p><br><br></p>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="454" height="296" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/12/and-machines.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-12055" srcset="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/12/and-machines.jpg 454w, https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/12/and-machines-300x196.jpg 300w" sizes="(max-width: 454px) 100vw, 454px" /><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">image by and-machines</figcaption></figure>



<p><br><br>Now, we are going to have a look at the&nbsp;<strong>past tense</strong>&nbsp;of these example-sentences.<br><br><br>The past tense is easy-peasy. You don’t need to distinguish between “Do” and “Does” depending on its grammatical situation, but instead, you can simply apply “<strong>Did</strong>” with any situation.<br><br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">Keith played the guitar.</h4>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">Her older sister read Japanese books.</h4>



<p><br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉  <strong>Did Keith</strong> play the guitar<strong>?</strong></h4>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉  <strong>Did her sister</strong> read Japanese books<strong>?</strong></h4>



<p><br><br><br>Watch out the pronunciation of the verb “read”!<br><br> It is pronounced as&nbsp;<strong>[red]</strong> <strong>with the past tense</strong> while it is pronounced as<strong>&nbsp;[riːd]&nbsp;with its original form.</strong><br><br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">Keith and Ron played the guitar.</h4>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">Her older sisters read Japanese books.</h4>



<p><br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉  <strong>Did Keith and Ron</strong> play the guitar<strong>?</strong></h4>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉  <strong>Did her older sisters</strong> read the Japanese books<strong>?</strong></h4>



<p><br><br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">Takeshi lived in Paris.</h4>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">She ate a lot.</h4>



<p><br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉  <strong>Did he</strong> live in Paris<strong>?</strong></h4>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉  <strong>Did she</strong> eat a lot<strong>?</strong></h4>



<p><br><br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">It dried quickly.</h4>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">She went to bed early.</h4>



<p><br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉  <strong>Did it</strong> dry quickly<strong>?</strong></h4>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉  <strong>Did she</strong> go to bed early<strong>?</strong></h4>



<p><br><br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">Jack and Jess lived together.</h4>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">Those people played basketball.</h4>



<p><br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉  <strong>Did Jack and Jess</strong> live together<strong>?</strong><br>(This can be “Did they live together?)</h4>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉  <strong>Did those people</strong> play basketball<strong>?</strong><br>(This also can be “Did they play basketball? depending on its context.)</h4>



<p><br><br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">It gave me a sense of freedom.</h4>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">They killed animals.</h4>



<p><br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉  <strong>Did it</strong> give me a sense of freedom<strong>?</strong></h4>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉  <strong>Did they</strong> kill animals<strong>?</strong></h4>



<p><br><br><br><br><br>Now, we are moving on to the case when the first person pronoun “<strong>I</strong>” is&nbsp;used as a subject.<br><br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">I love myself.</h4>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">I hate myself.</h4>



<p><br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉  <strong>Do I</strong> love myself<strong>?</strong></h4>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉  <strong>Do I</strong> hate myself<strong>?</strong></h4>



<p><br><br>We place auxiliary verb “<strong>Do</strong>” at the beginning of the sentence and put a question mark at the end.</p>



<p>“We” is also the first person pronoun, hence “<strong>Do</strong>” is to be applied.<br><br><br></p>



<div class="wp-block-cocoon-blocks-balloon-ex-box-1 speech-wrap sb-id-13 sbs-stn sbp-r sbis-cn cf block-box"><div class="speech-person"><figure class="speech-icon"><img decoding="async" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/09/bubble-0001.jpg" alt="" class="speech-icon-image"/></figure><div class="speech-name"></div></div><div class="speech-balloon">
<p>By the way, when it comes to “self-talk” practice, I believe the “present tense” is not used so often as the other tenses, to be honest.</p>
</div></div>



<p><br><br>It’s more often with the form of past tense or present perfect, just like&#8230;<br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">Did I switch off the light?</h4>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">Have I overslept again?</h4>



<p><br><br>or some modal verbs like&#8230;<br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">Can I cancel the appointment?</h4>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">Should I call her?</h4>



<p><br><br>Well, let’s just memorise how it works with present tense, since it’s not that we don’t use them at all.<br></p>



<p>Regarding the second person pronoun “You”, “Do” is placed at the beginning of the sentence with present&nbsp;tense and “Did” with the “past tense”, but since its use is not ideal for “self-talk” practice, let me skip the example-sentences here.<br><br></p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading"><span id="toc4"><strong>Question sentence with perfect form</strong></span></h3>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="510" height="329" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/12/shubham-dhage.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-12057" srcset="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/12/shubham-dhage.jpg 510w, https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/12/shubham-dhage-300x194.jpg 300w" sizes="(max-width: 510px) 100vw, 510px" /><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">image by shubham phage</figcaption></figure>



<p>The “present perfect form” is applied to the situation where something that happened at some point in the past has been going on up to the present.<br><br><br>It’s affirmative sentence is expressed with the structure of&nbsp;<br><br><br><strong>subject  +  have (has)  +  past participle form</strong>.<br><br></p>



<p>For example&#8230;<br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">I have been here before.</h4>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">He has finished his task.</h4>



<p><br><br>And if you turn them into the form of question, they will be&#8230;<br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉  <strong>Have I</strong> been here before<strong>?</strong></h4>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉  <strong>Has he</strong> finished his task<strong>?</strong></h4>



<p><br><br>And the answers to these questions will be&#8230;</p>



<p><strong>Yes, I have.&nbsp;</strong>/<strong>&nbsp;No, I haven’t.</strong><br><strong>Yes, he has.&nbsp;</strong>/<strong>&nbsp;No, he hasn’t.</strong></p>



<p><br><br>So, we place&nbsp;<strong>Have</strong>/<strong>Has</strong>&nbsp;at the beginning of the sentence and put a question mark at the end.<br><br>When the subject is the third person singular, “<strong>has</strong>” is to be applied, otherwise we use “<strong>have</strong>”.</p>



<p><br><br>Please turn the following example-sentences into the form of question and read them aloud.<br><br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">She has lived there since she was born.</h4>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">They have lost the match.</h4>



<p><br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉  <strong>Has she</strong> lived there since she was born<strong>?</strong></h4>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉  <strong>Have they</strong> lost the match<strong>?</strong></h4>



<p><br><br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">The man has been loitering by the entrance since morning.</h4>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">All the light bulbs have been replaced with new ones.</h4>



<p><br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉  <strong>Has the man</strong> been loitering by the entrance since morning<strong>?</strong></h4>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉  <strong>Have all the light bulbs</strong> been replaced with new ones<strong>?</strong></h4>



<p><br><br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">She has eaten nothing at all since last night.</h4>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">The mobile phone has been completely charged.</h4>



<p><br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉  <strong>Has she</strong> eaten nothing at all since last night<strong>?</strong></h4>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉  <strong>Has the mobile phone</strong> been completely charged<strong>?</strong></h4>



<p><br><br>How did it go?<br><br></p>



<p>Once you have got used to creating the form of question, create your original ones and speak them aloud!<br><br><br></p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><span id="toc5"><strong>Question sentences with interrogative words (Wh questions)</strong></span></h2>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="510" height="340" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/12/camylla-battani.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-12058" srcset="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/12/camylla-battani.jpg 510w, https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/12/camylla-battani-300x200.jpg 300w" sizes="(max-width: 510px) 100vw, 510px" /><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">image by Camylla Battani</figcaption></figure>



<p><br>Interrogative words are&#8230;<br><br></p>



<ul class="wp-block-list">
<li> <strong>What?</strong></li>



<li><strong>Which?</strong></li>



<li><strong>When?</strong></li>



<li><strong>Where?</strong></li>



<li><strong>Who?</strong></li>



<li><strong>Who?</strong></li>



<li><strong>How?</strong></li>
</ul>



<p><strong><br></strong><br><br>As for the questions that begin with interrogative words, we cannot respond to them with Yes/No since the answer could be anything.<br><br><br>A form of Wh-question will begin with an interrogative word followed by Be-verb, and when a general verb is used in a sentence, an interrogative word is followed by do, does, have, has and so on.</p>



<p><br>Anyway let’s have a look at the sentence below.<br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">Masaki is playing badminton with his girlfriend in the garden.</h4>



<p><br>We are going to create Wh-questions based on this sentence.<br></p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading"><span id="toc6"><strong>What?</strong></span></h3>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="510" height="340" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/12/waldemar-brandt-.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-12060" srcset="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/12/waldemar-brandt-.jpg 510w, https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/12/waldemar-brandt--300x200.jpg 300w" sizes="(max-width: 510px) 100vw, 510px" /><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">image by Waldemar Brandt</figcaption></figure>



<p>When we want to know “<strong>what</strong>” Masaki is doing, “<strong>badminton</strong>” will be the equivalent of “<strong>what</strong>”, won’t it?<br></p>



<p>In this case, we place an interrogative word “What” at the beginning of the sentence followed by Be-verb, and add a question mark at the end to complete.<br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">Masaki is playing badminton with his girlfriend in the garden.</h4>



<p></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉  Masaki is playing <strong>what</strong> with his girlfriend in the garden.</h4>



<p></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉  <strong>What is</strong> Masaki playing with his girlfriend in the garden<strong>?</strong></h4>



<p><br></p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading"><span id="toc7"><strong>Who?</strong></span></h3>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="510" height="365" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/12/carolina-C7.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-12061" srcset="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/12/carolina-C7.jpg 510w, https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/12/carolina-C7-300x215.jpg 300w" sizes="(max-width: 510px) 100vw, 510px" /><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">image by Carolina</figcaption></figure>



<p>Here, we want to know “<strong>who</strong>” are playing badminton. In this case, “<strong>Masaki and his girlfriend</strong>” are the equivalent of “<strong>who</strong>”, and since two people are involved, we replace “is” with “are”.<br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">Masaki is playing badminton with his girlfriend in the garden.</h4>



<p></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉  <strong>Who are</strong> playing badminton in the garden<strong>?</strong></h4>



<p><br><br><br>Now, this time, we want to know with “<strong>who</strong>” Masaki is playing badminton.<br><br><br><br>In this case, “<strong>Masaki’s girlfriend</strong>” is the equivalent of “<strong>who</strong>”, hence, it will be&#8230;<br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">Masaki is playing badminton with his girlfriend in the garden.</h4>



<p></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉  Masaki is playing badminton with <strong>who</strong> in the garden.</h4>



<p></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉  <strong>Who is</strong> Masaki playing badminton with in the garden<strong>?</strong></h4>



<p><br><br>* Note that the preposition “with” has been left as it was.<br><br></p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading"><span id="toc8"><strong>Where?</strong></span></h3>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="510" height="382" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/12/linus-ekenstam.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-12062" srcset="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/12/linus-ekenstam.jpg 510w, https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/12/linus-ekenstam-300x225.jpg 300w" sizes="(max-width: 510px) 100vw, 510px" /><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">image by Linus Ekenstam</figcaption></figure>



<p>We would like to know<strong>&nbsp;</strong>“<strong>where</strong>” they are playing badminton. <br><br>This time, “<strong>in the garden</strong>” is the equivalent of “<strong>where</strong>”, therefore&#8230;<br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">Masaki is playing badminton with his girlfriend in the garden.</h4>



<p></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉  Masaki is playing badminton with his girlfriend <strong>where</strong>.</h4>



<p></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉  <strong>Where is</strong> Masaki playing badminton with his girlfriend<strong>?</strong></h4>



<p><br><br>I think that is pretty much we could get from the example sentence.<br></p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading"><span id="toc9"><strong>How?</strong></span></h3>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="510" height="325" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/12/matt-ridley.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-12064" srcset="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/12/matt-ridley.jpg 510w, https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/12/matt-ridley-300x191.jpg 300w" sizes="(max-width: 510px) 100vw, 510px" /><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">image by Matt Ridley</figcaption></figure>



<p>This time we are going to have a check on “how” with the similar process.<br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">He goes to work by bus.</h4>



<p><br><br>We would like to know “<strong>how</strong>” he goes to work.<br><br><br>So, this time “<strong>by bus</strong>” will be the equivalent of “<strong>how</strong>”, won’t it?&nbsp;<br><br>Therefore&#8230;<br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">He goes to work by bus.</h4>



<p></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉  He goes to work <strong>how</strong>.</h4>



<p><br><br>A general verb is used instead of Be-verb with this sentence, so we apply “does” and bring the verb back into its original form.<br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉  He <strong>does go</strong> to work <strong>how</strong>.</h4>



<p><br><br>Finally, we change the words with the collect order&#8230;<br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉  <strong>How does</strong> he go to work?</h4>



<p><br></p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading"><span id="toc10"><strong>Which?</strong></span></h3>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="510" height="340" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/12/thomas-evans-.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-12065" srcset="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/12/thomas-evans-.jpg 510w, https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/12/thomas-evans--300x200.jpg 300w" sizes="(max-width: 510px) 100vw, 510px" /><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">image by Thomas Evans</figcaption></figure>



<p>Right. Let’s do one more, shall we?<br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">Yours are the red ones out of these.</h4>



<p><br><br>You want to know “<strong>which ones</strong>” are yours.<br><br>Hence, “<strong>the red ones</strong>” will be the equivalent of “<strong>which ones</strong>”, won’t they?<br><br><br> Therefore&#8230;<br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">Yours are the red ones out of these.</h4>



<p></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉  Yours are <strong>which ones</strong> out of these.</h4>



<p></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉  <strong>Which ones are</strong> yours out of these?</h4>



<p><br><br><br>As we have gone through some procedures, we create a form of the question by replacing the words that are equivalent of “where, what, who, etc.” with an appropriate interrogative word and bring it at the beginning of the sentence.<br></p>



<p><br>Anyway, here, I have prepared several example-sentences with a form of question for each interrogative word, therefore please read them aloud so that the pattern of them will stick to your head.<br><br><br><br><br><br>What was his name?<br><br>What was I watching last night?<br><br>What am I thinking about?<br><br>What have I done?<br><br>What did my daughter see in the sky last night?<br><br>What was I supposed to do in such a situation?<br><br><br><br><br><br>Which colour is your favourite?<br><br>Which one was more important?<br><br>Which way did I want to go?<br><br>Which was good for Alex?<br><br>Which one did you choose in the end?<br><br><br><br><br><br>When did I see him?<br><br>When was the last time I played the piano?<br><br>When does he come to my house?<br><br>When did we meet up?<br><br>When was your birthday?<br><br><br><br><br><br>Where is he from?<br><br>Where does he come from?<br><br>Where do you live?<br><br>Where did I drop my wallet last night?<br><br>Where were you?<br><br><br><br><br><br>Who am I supposed to meet there?&nbsp;<br><br>Who did you go to the concert with?<br><br>Who do you think you are?<br><br>Who was Jack playing basketball with?<br><br>Who were they?<br><br><br><br><br><br>Why did you go there?<br><br>Why did I tell her the truth?<br><br>Why has he been waiting for her for such a long time?<br><br>Why have they got your number?<br><br>Why did I forget to lock my bike?<br><br><br><br><br><br>How did you do it?<br><br>How is it possible?<br><br>How did you know it was him?<br><br>How did it happen?<br><br>How am I supposed to know it?<br><br><br></p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><span id="toc11"><strong>Indirect questions</strong></span></h2>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="510" height="340" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/12/towfiqu-barbhuiya.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-12066" srcset="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/12/towfiqu-barbhuiya.jpg 510w, https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/12/towfiqu-barbhuiya-300x200.jpg 300w" sizes="(max-width: 510px) 100vw, 510px" /><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">image by towfiqu barbhulya</figcaption></figure>



<p>First of all, when you ask someone for information like&#8230;<br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">Where can I find a cash machine around here?</h4>



<p><br><br>some people might get taken aback or might get upset, therefore in order to avoid this, we use “Indirect questions” which can be created by placing the phrase like “Do you know” at the beginning of the sentence to make it sound more polite or friendly.<br><br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉  <strong>Do you know</strong> where <strong>I can</strong> find a cash machine around here?</h4>



<p><br><br><br>In this case, the phrase “Do you know&nbsp;〜” already has got a structure of question, therefore we bring the original sentence’s question form back into normal as [<strong>subject + verb</strong>].<br></p>



<p><br><br>Let’s have a look at the following sentence.<br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">Where did you buy your ticket from?</h4>



<p><br><br>And to change this into an indirect question, it can be&#8230;<br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>👉</strong>  <strong>Could you please tell me</strong>&nbsp;where you&nbsp;<strong>bought</strong>&nbsp;your ticket from?</h4>



<p><br><br>Again, the phrase “Could you tell me&nbsp;〜” has got a structure of a question, so we exclude the word “did” that was brought about during the process of making a question form and bring the original verb form “buy” back to its past tense “bought”.<br></p>



<p>In short, we change the order of an original question form into the shape of&#8230;<br><br></p>



<h5 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Interrogative word  +  subject  +  verb</strong></h5>



<p><br><br><br><br><br>Well, this is it for the article of creating some basic question forms.</p>



<p>I presume it had a bit of volume, so thank you very much for reading this through and I hope it has been of good use to your speaking practice.<br><br><br><br>Bye now.<br><br><br>konkaz</p>



<p>👉 *&nbsp;<a rel="noopener follow" target="_blank" href="https://www.konkaz.com/eigo-jiru-027/">Japanese version of this blog post</a></p>
]]></content:encoded>
					
		
		
			</item>
		<item>
		<title>英語の疑問文の型を、例文を声に出して読んで記憶する！《英語汁第27号》</title>
		<link>https://www.konkaz.com/eigo-jiru-027/</link>
		
		<dc:creator><![CDATA[konkaz]]></dc:creator>
		<pubDate>Sun, 20 Nov 2022 09:02:25 +0000</pubDate>
				<category><![CDATA[英語汁 / Eigo-jiru]]></category>
		<guid isPermaLink="false">https://www.konkaz.com/?p=11832</guid>

					<description><![CDATA[今回の記事では、基本的な疑問文のつくり方を見ていきます。内容的には「初心者レヴェル」からとなりますが、普通に「文法は一通り知っているけどスピーキングが苦手」という人のためにも、独り言で使えそうな例文が多数並べてあるので、いい練習になるかと思います。]]></description>
										<content:encoded><![CDATA[
<p><br><br>どうも、コンカズ&nbsp;(<a rel="noopener nofollow" target="_blank" href="https://twitter.com/konkazuk"><strong>@konkazuk</strong></a>)&nbsp;です&nbsp;。<br></p>



<p>今回の記事では、基本的な疑問文のつくり方を見ていきます。<br><br></p>



<div class="wp-block-cocoon-blocks-balloon-ex-box-1 speech-wrap sb-id-13 sbs-stn sbp-r sbis-cn cf block-box"><div class="speech-person"><figure class="speech-icon"><img decoding="async" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/09/bubble-0001.jpg" alt="" class="speech-icon-image"/></figure><div class="speech-name"></div></div><div class="speech-balloon">
<p>質問がうまくできるようになれば、相手とのやり取りの幅が広がるため、さらにたくさんの英語を学べることになります。</p>
</div></div>



<p><br>内容的には「初心者レヴェル」からとなりますが、普通に「文法は一通り知っているけどスピーキングが苦手」という人のためにも、できるかぎり独り言で使えそうな例文が並べてあるので、いい練習になるかと思います。<br></p>



<p>これらを声に出して、くりかえし読むことで、疑問文の「型」が身につくと思いますので、ぜひとも使い倒してみてください。<br></p>



<p></p>



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<p></p>




  <div id="toc" class="toc tnt-none toc-center tnt-none border-element"><input type="checkbox" class="toc-checkbox" id="toc-checkbox-8"><label class="toc-title" for="toc-checkbox-8">目次</label>
    <div class="toc-content">
    <ul class="toc-list open"><li><a href="#toc1" tabindex="0"><strong>Yes/No&nbsp;で答えられる疑問文</strong></a><ul><li><a href="#toc2" tabindex="0"><strong>Be動詞/modal verbの疑問文</strong></a></li><li><a href="#toc3" tabindex="0"><strong>一般動詞の疑問文</strong></a></li><li><a href="#toc4" tabindex="0"><strong>完了形の疑問文</strong></a></li></ul></li><li><a href="#toc5" tabindex="0"><strong>疑問詞&nbsp;“Wh”&nbsp;を使った疑問文</strong></a><ul><li><a href="#toc6" tabindex="0"><strong>What?</strong></a></li><li><a href="#toc7" tabindex="0"><strong>Who?</strong></a></li><li><a href="#toc8" tabindex="0"><strong>Where?</strong></a></li><li><a href="#toc9" tabindex="0">How?</a></li><li><a href="#toc10" tabindex="0">Which?</a></li></ul></li><li><a href="#toc11" tabindex="0"><strong>間接疑問文</strong></a></li></ul>
    </div>
  </div>

<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><span id="toc1"><strong>Yes/No&nbsp;で答えられる疑問文</strong></span></h2>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="510" height="338" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/11/alisa-olaivar.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-11837" srcset="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/11/alisa-olaivar.jpg 510w, https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/11/alisa-olaivar-300x199.jpg 300w" sizes="(max-width: 510px) 100vw, 510px" /><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">image by Alisa Olaivar</figcaption></figure>



<p>まずは、相手が「はい」か「いいえ」で答えられる最も基本的な疑問文のカタチを見ていきます。<br></p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading"><span id="toc2"><strong>Be動詞/modal verbの疑問文</strong></span></h3>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="510" height="340" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/11/shubham-dhage-.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-11842" srcset="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/11/shubham-dhage-.jpg 510w, https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/11/shubham-dhage--300x200.jpg 300w" sizes="(max-width: 510px) 100vw, 510px" /><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">image by shubham phage</figcaption></figure>



<p>Be動詞「〜である」、そして&nbsp;can&nbsp;や&nbsp;will&nbsp;などの&nbsp;“modal verb” (法助動詞) が使われる場合を、まずここで見ていきましょう。</p>



<p>簡単なところから始めると、まずは基本的な代名詞から始まる肯定文を思い浮かべてみて&#8230;<br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">This is my husband.<br>「これが私のダンナです。」</h4>



<p></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">This is how much I have in my bank account at the moment.<br>「これが現在、私の銀行口座に入っているお金です。」</h4>



<p><br><br>これらの文を疑問形にするには、主語とbe動詞をひっくり返して&#8230;<br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>👉  Is this</strong>&nbsp;my husband<strong>?</strong><br>「これが私のダンナなのか？」</h4>



<p></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉  <strong>Is this</strong>&nbsp;how much I have in my bank account<strong>?</strong><br>「これが今、私の口座にあるお金？（こんだけしか残ってないの？w）」</h4>



<p><br><br>となります。<br><br><br><br>文章で書く際には、最後にクエスチョンマークをつけます。<br><br>でもって答えは&nbsp;“<strong>Yes, it is.</strong>”&nbsp;または&nbsp;“<strong>No, it isn’t.</strong>”&nbsp;で答えられますよね。<br><br><br><br>こんな感じで、以下の肯定文を読んだら、それらを疑問文にして声に出していってみてください。<br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">It is wrong.<br>「それは間違っている。」</h4>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">It’s too late.<br>「そりゃ手遅れだ。」</h4>



<p><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉  <strong>Is it</strong>&nbsp;wrong<strong>?</strong><br>「それは間違ってんの？」</h4>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉  <strong>Is it</strong>&nbsp;too late<strong>?</strong><br>「それはもう手遅れ？」</h4>



<p><br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">That’s my cat.<br>「あれは、うちの猫です。」</h4>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">That’s my mobile phone.<br>「それは私のケータイです。」</h4>



<p><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉  <strong>Is that</strong>&nbsp;my cat<strong>?</strong><br>「あれは、うちの猫か？」</h4>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉  <strong>Is that</strong>&nbsp;my mobile phone<strong>?</strong><br>「それ私のケータイ？」</h4>



<p><br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">I am stupid.<br>「俺はバカだ。」</h4>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">I am a bit tired today.<br>「私は今日ちょっと疲れている。」</h4>



<p><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉  <strong>Am I</strong>&nbsp;stupid<strong>?</strong><br>「俺はバカなのか？」</h4>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉  <strong>Am I</strong>&nbsp;a bit tired today<strong>?</strong><br>「私は今日ちょっと疲れているのか？」</h4>



<p><br><br>これらは主語が &#8220;<strong>I</strong>&#8221; なので&nbsp;“<strong>Yes, I am.</strong>”&nbsp;または&nbsp;“<strong>No, I’m not.</strong>”&nbsp;のどちらかで答えられます。<br><br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">He is an alien.<br>「彼は宇宙人だ。」</h4>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">He is not a nice person.<br>「彼はいいヤツではない。」</h4>



<p><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉  <strong>Is he</strong>&nbsp;an alien<strong>?</strong><br>「彼は宇宙人なのか？」</h4>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉  <strong>Is he</strong>&nbsp;not a nice person<strong>?</strong><br>「彼はいいヤツじゃないのか？」</h4>



<p>&nbsp;<br><br>“<strong>Yes, he is.</strong>”&nbsp;または&nbsp;“<strong>No, he isn’t.&nbsp;</strong>(<strong>No, he’s not.</strong>)”&nbsp;で答えられます。<br><br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">They are mine.<br>「それらは私のものです。」</h4>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">They are different.<br>「それらは異なる。」</h4>



<p><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉  <strong>Are they</strong>&nbsp;mine<strong>?</strong><br>「それらは私のものなの？」</h4>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉  <strong>Are they</strong>&nbsp;different<strong>?</strong><br>「それらは別モンなん？」</h4>



<p><br><br>答えは&nbsp;“<strong>Yes, they are.</strong>”&nbsp;<br>または&nbsp;“<strong>No, they aren’t.&nbsp;</strong>(<strong>No, they’re not.</strong>)”<br><br></p>



<div class="wp-block-cocoon-blocks-balloon-ex-box-1 speech-wrap sb-id-13 sbs-stn sbp-r sbis-cn cf block-box"><div class="speech-person"><figure class="speech-icon"><img decoding="async" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/09/bubble-0001.jpg" alt="" class="speech-icon-image"/></figure><div class="speech-name"></div></div><div class="speech-balloon">
<p>ちゃんと声を出してしゃべってますか？<br></p>
</div></div>



<p><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">She is the boss.<br>「彼女はボスだ。」</h4>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">She is good-looking.<br>「彼女はグッドルッキングだ。」</h4>



<p><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉  <strong>Is she</strong>&nbsp;the boss<strong>?</strong><br>「彼女がボスなん？」</h4>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉  <strong>Is she</strong>&nbsp;good-looking<strong>?<br></strong>「彼女はグッドルッキングなのかい？」</h4>



<p><br><br><br>“<strong>Yes, she is.</strong>”&nbsp;または&nbsp;“<strong>No, she isn’t.&nbsp;</strong>(<strong>No, she’s not.</strong>)” で答えられます。<br><br></p>



<p><br>では、最後に&nbsp;”You”&nbsp;からはじめる場合&#8230;<br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">You are hungry.<br>「あなたは、お腹が減っています。」</h4>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">You are Kate’s sister.<br>「あなたはケイトの姉妹です。」</h4>



<p><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉  <strong>Are you</strong>&nbsp;hungry<strong>?</strong><br>「あなた、お腹減ってる？」</h4>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉  <strong>Are you</strong>&nbsp;Kate’s sister<strong>?</strong><br>「あなたはケイトの姉妹？」</h4>



<p><br><br>自分がこう聞かれたと想定して&#8230; 答えは&nbsp;“<strong>Yes, I am.</strong>”&nbsp;または&nbsp;“<strong>No, I’m not.</strong>”&nbsp;となりますね。<br><br></p>



<div class="wp-block-cocoon-blocks-balloon-ex-box-1 speech-wrap sb-id-13 sbs-stn sbp-r sbis-cn cf block-box"><div class="speech-person"><figure class="speech-icon"><img decoding="async" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/09/bubble-0001.jpg" alt="" class="speech-icon-image"/></figure><div class="speech-name"></div></div><div class="speech-balloon">
<p>“You”&nbsp;で始めると相手に面と向かって話していることになるので、自問自答のカタチにはできませんが、想像力のある方は、鏡の中の自分を相手にしてみてもいいでしょう。&nbsp;(頭がおかしくならない程度に)&nbsp;w</p>
</div></div>



<p><br>文法的にはたいしたことないですが、こうやっていろんなボキャブラリーや、シチュエーションを当てはめながら、それらを声に出していくことで、次第に実際の場で反射的に使えるようになってきます。<br><br></p>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full is-resized"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/11/rick-gebhardt-1.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-11879" width="510" height="340" srcset="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/11/rick-gebhardt-1.jpg 510w, https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/11/rick-gebhardt-1-300x200.jpg 300w" sizes="(max-width: 510px) 100vw, 510px" /><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">image by rick-gebhardt</figcaption></figure>



<p><br><br><br>それでは、今度はこれらを<strong>過去形</strong>でトライしてみましょう。<br><br>（過去形にするとシチュエーション上意味がおかしくなってくるものは、省いてあります。）<br><br><br><br>なお、be動詞は次のように変化します。<br></p>



<h5 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>am</strong>&nbsp;&nbsp;👉&nbsp;&nbsp;<strong>was</strong><br><strong>are</strong>&nbsp;&nbsp;👉&nbsp;&nbsp;<strong>were</strong></h5>



<p><br><br>今回は答えはあえて載せてありませんので、自力で頑張ってください！<br><br><br><br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">It was wrong.</h4>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">It’s too late.　&nbsp;</h4>



<p><br><br>👉  <strong>？？？</strong><br><br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">That’s my cat.　</h4>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">That’s my mobile phone.　</h4>



<p>&nbsp;<br><br>👉  <strong>？？？</strong><br><br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">I was stupid.</h4>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">I was a bit tired earlier today.</h4>



<p><br><br>👉  <strong>？？？</strong><br><br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">He was an alien.</h4>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">He was not a nice person.</h4>



<p><br><br>👉  <strong>？？？</strong><br><br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">They were mine.</h4>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">They were different.</h4>



<p><br><br>👉  <strong>？？？</strong><br><br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">She was the boss.</h4>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">She was good-looking.</h4>



<p><br><br>👉  <strong>？？？</strong><br><br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">You were hungry.</h4>



<p><br><br>👉  <strong>？？？</strong><br></p>



<p><br><br>どうでしたか？<br><br></p>



<div class="wp-block-cocoon-blocks-balloon-ex-box-1 speech-wrap sb-id-16 sbs-stn sbp-r sbis-cn cf block-box"><div class="speech-person"><figure class="speech-icon"><img decoding="async" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/09/bubble-0004.jpg" alt="" class="speech-icon-image"/></figure><div class="speech-name"></div></div><div class="speech-balloon">
<p>文章が”Was”&nbsp;や&nbsp;“Were”&nbsp;ではじまるので、最初の&nbsp;“<strong>w</strong>”&nbsp;の音は、思いっきり口をすぼめてやると、英語の発音らしく聞こえますよ。✨</p>
</div></div>



<p><br><br>じゃあ、こんどはcan&nbsp;や&nbsp;will&nbsp;などの&nbsp;“modal verb”&nbsp;もミックスしていってみましょうか?<br><br></p>



<p>まずは肯定文を見て、自分で疑問文の形にして声に出していってください。<br><br>すぐに答えを見てはいけませんよ。<br><br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">This can be devastating.<br>「これは痛烈かもしれない。」</h4>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">This will be interesting.<br>「これは面白くなりそうだ。」</h4>



<p><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉  <strong>Can this</strong>&nbsp;be devastating<strong>?</strong><br>「これは痛烈かな？」</h4>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉  <strong>Will this&nbsp;</strong>be interesting<strong>?</strong><br>「これは面白い事になりそう？」</h4>



<p><br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">It might be right.<br>「それは正しいかもしれない。」</h4>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">It can be true.<br>「それはホンマかもしれへん。」</h4>



<p><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉  <strong>Might it&nbsp;</strong>be right<strong>?</strong><br>「それは正しいかも?」</h4>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉  <strong>Can it</strong>&nbsp;be true<strong>?</strong><br>「そんなことあり得る？」</h4>



<p><br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">That will help us a lot.<br>「それは私たちにとって、かなりの助けになる。」</h4>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">That can cause a serious problem.<br>「それは深刻な問題を生じる可能性がある。」</h4>



<p><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉  <strong>Will that</strong>&nbsp;help us a lot<strong>?</strong><br>「それは私たちにとって、かなりの助けになるの？」</h4>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉  <strong>Can that</strong>&nbsp;cause a serious problem<strong>?</strong><br>「それは深刻な問題を生じる可能性がある?」</h4>



<p><br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">I can bear with her.<br>「私は彼女に耐えられます。」</h4>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">I will feel sick if I read this book on the bus.<br>「この本をバスの中で読んだら、気分が悪くなるであろう。」</h4>



<p><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉  <strong>Can I</strong>&nbsp;bear with her<strong>?</strong><br>「私は彼女に耐えられるのか？」</h4>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉  <strong>Will I</strong>&nbsp;feel sick if I read this book on the bus<strong>?</strong><br>「この本をバスの中で読んだら、自分は気分が悪くなるのでは？」</h4>



<p><br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">He can play the guitar.<br>「彼はギターを弾くことができる。」</h4>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">He will attend the meeting.<br>「彼はミーティングに参加するでしょう。」</h4>



<p><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉  <strong>Can he</strong>&nbsp;play the guitar<strong>?</strong><br>「彼はギターを弾くことができるのか？」</h4>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉  <strong>Will he</strong>&nbsp;attend the meeting<strong>?</strong><br>「彼はミーティングに参加するでしょうか？」</h4>



<p><br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">They can finish this task by the end of the day.<br>「彼らは今日中にこのタスクを終わらせることができる。」</h4>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">They are going to succeed.<br>「彼らは成功するであろう。」</h4>



<p><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉  <strong>Can they</strong>&nbsp;finish this task by the end of the day<strong>?</strong><br>「彼らは今日中にこのタスクを終わらせることができるのか？」</h4>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉  <strong>Are they</strong>&nbsp;going to succeed<strong>?</strong><br>「彼らは成功するであろうか？」</h4>



<p><br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">She will agree with me.<br>「彼女は私に同意してくれるであろう。」</h4>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">She will be able to come tomorrow’s party.<br>「彼女は明日のパーティーに来ることができるでしょう。」</h4>



<p><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉  <strong>Will she</strong>&nbsp;agree with me<strong>?</strong><br>「彼女は私に同意してくれるであろうか？」</h4>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉  <strong>Will she</strong>&nbsp;be able to come tomorrow’s party<strong>?</strong><br>「彼女は明日のパーティーに来ることができるでしょうか？」</h4>



<p><br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">You will remember my phone number.<br>「あなたは、私の電話番号を覚えているでしょう。」</h4>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">You might scream if you fail the exam.<br>「あなたはその試験に落ちたら、発狂するかもしれない。」</h4>



<p><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉  <strong>Will you&nbsp;</strong>remember my phone number<strong>？</strong><br>「あなたは、私の電話番号を覚えているでしょうか？」</h4>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉  <strong>Might you</strong>&nbsp;scream if you fail the exam<strong>？</strong><br>「あなたはその試験に落ちたら、発狂するかもしれない？」</h4>



<p><br><br>うまく疑問文にできたでしょうか？&nbsp;<br><br><br><br>作業自体は、主語と助動詞(など)を反対にするだけなので、カンタンかもしれませんが、文章全体を話すとなると、口が上手く回らないって人も結構いるのではないでしょうか？<br><br></p>



<h5 class="wp-block-heading">スピーキングができるようになるためには、文章を声に出して話すことがいかに重要かってことが、これだけでもわかると思います。</h5>



<p></p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading"><span id="toc3"><strong>一般動詞の疑問文</strong></span></h3>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="510" height="364" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/11/milad-fakurian-1.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-11841" srcset="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/11/milad-fakurian-1.jpg 510w, https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/11/milad-fakurian-1-300x214.jpg 300w" sizes="(max-width: 510px) 100vw, 510px" /><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">image by mild fakurian</figcaption></figure>



<p>では今度は、一般動詞だけで作られている肯定文（Be動詞も、can&nbsp;や&nbsp;will&nbsp;などの&nbsp;“modal verb”(法助動詞)もない場合）を見ていきます。<br></p>



<p><br>まずは次の文章を見てみましょう。<br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">Keith plays the guitar.<br>「キースはギターを弾く。」</h4>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">Her older sister reads Japanese books.<br>「彼女の姉は日本の本を読む。」</h4>



<p><br><br>これらを疑問文にすると&#8230;<br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉  <strong>Does Keith</strong>&nbsp;play the guitar<strong>?</strong><br>「キースはギターを弾くの？」</h4>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉  <strong>Does her older sister</strong>&nbsp;read Japanese books<strong>?</strong><br>「彼女の姉は日本の本を読むの？」</h4>



<p><br><br>とこうなります。<br><br></p>



<p>助動詞である &#8220;<strong>Does</strong>&#8221;&nbsp;を文頭に置いて、動詞を原型に戻し、文の最後にクエスチョンマークをつけます。</p>



<p><br>じゃあ次の場合はどうなるか？<br><br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">Keith and Ron play the guitar.<br>「キースとロンはギターを弾く。」</h4>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">Her older sisters read Japanese books.<br>「彼女の姉たちは日本の本を読む。」</h4>



<p><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉  <strong>Do Keith and Ron</strong>&nbsp;play the guitar<strong>？</strong><br>「キースとロンはギターを弾くのかい？」</h4>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉  <strong>Do her older sisters</strong>&nbsp;read Japanese books<strong>？</strong><br>「彼女の姉たちは日本の本を読むのかい？」</h4>



<p><br><br>今度は &#8220;<strong>Do</strong>&#8221;&nbsp;を文頭に置いて、文の最後にクエスチョンマークをつけます。<br></p>



<p><br>このように&#8230;<br></p>



<h5 class="wp-block-heading">主語が三人称単数のとき&nbsp;&nbsp;👉&nbsp;<strong>Does</strong><br>主語が三人称単数以外のとき&nbsp;&nbsp;👉&nbsp;<strong>Do</strong></h5>



<p><br>となります。<br><br><br><br><br>というわけで、もう少しやってみましょうか。<br></p>



<p>カンタンなボキャブラリーを使っていくので日本語訳を省いていきます。<br><br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">Takeshi lives in Paris.</h4>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">She eats a lot.</h4>



<p><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉  <strong>Does Takeshi</strong>&nbsp;live in Paris<strong>?</strong></h4>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉  <strong>Does she</strong>&nbsp;eat a lot<strong>?</strong></h4>



<p><br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">It dries quickly.</h4>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">She goes to bed early.</h4>



<p><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉  <strong>Does it</strong>&nbsp;dry quickly<strong>?</strong></h4>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉  <strong>Does she</strong>&nbsp;go to bed early<strong>?</strong></h4>



<p><br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">Jack and Jess live together.</h4>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">Those people play basketball.</h4>



<p><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉  <strong>Do Jack and Jess</strong>&nbsp;live together<strong>?</strong><br>(内容的にはもちろんDo they live together?&nbsp;でもいけます。)</h4>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉  <strong>Do those people</strong>&nbsp;play basketball<strong>？<br></strong>(これもシチュエーションによってはDo they play basketball?&nbsp;でもオッケーです。）</h4>



<p><br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">It gives me a sense of freedom.</h4>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">They kill animals.</h4>



<p><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉  <strong>Does it</strong>&nbsp;give me a sense of freedom<strong>?</strong></h4>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉  <strong>Do they</strong>&nbsp;kill animals<strong>?</strong></h4>



<p><br></p>



<div class="wp-block-cocoon-blocks-balloon-ex-box-1 speech-wrap sb-id-13 sbs-stn sbp-r sbis-cn cf block-box"><div class="speech-person"><figure class="speech-icon"><img decoding="async" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/09/bubble-0001.jpg" alt="" class="speech-icon-image"/></figure><div class="speech-name"></div></div><div class="speech-balloon">
<p>it&nbsp;も&nbsp;they&nbsp;も三人称ですよ。</p>
</div></div>



<p><br></p>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="454" height="296" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/11/and-machines-2.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-11889" srcset="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/11/and-machines-2.jpg 454w, https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/11/and-machines-2-300x196.jpg 300w" sizes="(max-width: 454px) 100vw, 454px" /><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">image by and-machines</figcaption></figure>



<p><br><br>続いて、これらの<strong>過去形</strong>を見ていきます。<br><br><br>過去形は楽チンです。Do, Does&nbsp;のように使い分けることなく、両方 &#8220;<strong>Did</strong>&#8221;&nbsp;でいけます。<br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">Keith played the guitar.</h4>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">Her older sister read Japanese books.</h4>



<p><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉  <strong>Did Keith</strong>&nbsp;play the guitar<strong>？</strong></h4>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉  <strong>Did her older sister</strong> read Japanese books<strong>？</strong></h4>



<p><br><br><br><strong>read&nbsp;の発音は、過去形が&nbsp;[red]&nbsp;原型は&nbsp;[riːd]&nbsp;ってところに注意です。</strong><br><br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">Keith and Ron played the guitar.</h4>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">Her older sisters read Japanese books.</h4>



<p><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉  <strong>Did Keith and Ron</strong>&nbsp;play the guitar<strong>？</strong></h4>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉  <strong>Did her older sisters</strong>&nbsp;read Japanese books<strong>？</strong></h4>



<p><br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">Takeshi lived in Paris.</h4>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">She ate a lot.</h4>



<p><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉  <strong>Did he</strong>&nbsp;live in Paris<strong>?</strong></h4>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉  <strong>Did she</strong>&nbsp;eat a lot<strong>?</strong></h4>



<p><br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">It dried quickly.</h4>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">She went to bed early.</h4>



<p><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉  <strong>Did it</strong>&nbsp;dry quickly<strong>?</strong></h4>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉  <strong>Did she</strong>&nbsp;go to bed early<strong>?</strong></h4>



<p><br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">Jack and Jess lived together.</h4>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">Those people played basketball.</h4>



<p><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉  <strong>Did Jack and Jess</strong>&nbsp;live together<strong>?</strong><br>(内容的にはもちろんDid they live together?&nbsp;でもいけます。)</h4>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉  <strong>Did those people</strong>&nbsp;play basketball<strong>？<br></strong>(これもシチュエーションによっては、Did they play basketball?&nbsp;でもオッケーです。）</h4>



<p><br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">It gave me a sense of freedom.</h4>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">They killed animals.</h4>



<p><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉  <strong>Did it</strong>&nbsp;give me a sense of freedom<strong>?</strong></h4>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉  <strong>Did they</strong>&nbsp;kill animals<strong>?</strong></h4>



<p><br><br>とまぁ、こんな感じになります。<br><br></p>



<p><br><br>それでは次に１人称&nbsp;“<strong>I</strong>”&nbsp;の場合。<br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">I love myself.<br>「私は自分のことが好きだ。」</h4>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">I hate myself.<br>「私は自分のことが嫌いだ。」</h4>



<p><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉  <strong>Do</strong>&nbsp;I love myself<strong>?</strong><br>「私は自分のことが好きなのか？」</h4>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉  <strong>Do</strong>&nbsp;I hate myself<strong>?</strong><br>「私は自分のことが嫌いなのか？」</h4>



<p><br><br>という感じで、助動詞である &#8220;<strong>Do</strong>&#8221;&nbsp;を文頭に置いて、文の最後にクエスチョンマークをつけるだけです。</p>



<p>“We”&nbsp;も一人称となりますが、複数形なので同じように&nbsp;&#8220;<strong>Do</strong>&#8221;&nbsp;が使われます。<br><br><br></p>



<div class="wp-block-cocoon-blocks-balloon-ex-box-1 speech-wrap sb-id-13 sbs-stn sbp-r sbis-cn cf block-box"><div class="speech-person"><figure class="speech-icon"><img decoding="async" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/09/bubble-0001.jpg" alt="" class="speech-icon-image"/></figure><div class="speech-name"></div></div><div class="speech-balloon">
<p>ちなみに、独り言で自問自答する場合は正直なところ、あまり現在形は用いないですかね。</p>
</div></div>



<p><br>どちらかといえば&#8230;<br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">Did I switch off the light?<br>「じぶん電気消したっけ？」</h4>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">Have I overslept again?<br>「またオレ寝坊したか？」</h4>



<p><br><br>のように過去形や現在完了形、または&#8230;<br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">Can I cancel the appointment?<br>「予約キャンセルできるかな？」</h4>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">Should I call her?<br>「彼女に電話すべきなのか？」</h4>



<p><br><br>のような感じで、modal&nbsp;の動詞を使う場合の方が一般的かと思うので、今回はカタチだけとりあえず覚えておきましょう。（現在形をまったく使わないわけではありませんし&#8230;)<br></p>



<p><br>２人称の&nbsp;“You”&nbsp;の場合は、“I”&nbsp;の場合と同じで、現在形には&nbsp;“Do”、そして 過去形には&nbsp;“Did”&nbsp;を文頭に持ってきますが、独り言でつぶやく練習にはあまり向いていないため、ここでの例文は割愛させていただきます。<strong><br></strong></p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading"><span id="toc4"><strong>完了形の疑問文</strong></span></h3>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="510" height="329" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/11/shubham-dhage-1.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-11843" srcset="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/11/shubham-dhage-1.jpg 510w, https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/11/shubham-dhage-1-300x194.jpg 300w" sizes="(max-width: 510px) 100vw, 510px" /><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">image by shubham phage</figcaption></figure>



<p>「現在完了形」は過去のある時点に起こったことが、そのまま現在まで続いている時に使われます。</p>



<p><br>肯定文だと、<strong>主語</strong><strong>&nbsp;+ have (has) +&nbsp;動詞の過去分詞</strong>&nbsp;の形で表現されます。<br></p>



<p>例えば&#8230;<br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">I have been here before.<br>「ここには以前来たことがある。」</h4>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">He has finished his task.<br>「彼は仕事を終えてしまった。」</h4>



<p><br><br>これらを疑問文にすると&#8230;<br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉  <strong>Have I</strong>&nbsp;been here before<strong>?</strong><br>「ここには以前来たことがあるのか？」</h4>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉  <strong>Has he</strong>&nbsp;finished his task<strong>?</strong><br>「彼は仕事を終えてしまったのか？」</h4>



<p><br><br>これらもこんな感じで&#8230;<br><br><br><strong>Yes, I have.&nbsp;</strong>/&nbsp;<strong>No, I haven’t.</strong><br><strong>Yes, he has.</strong>&nbsp;/&nbsp;<strong>No, he hasn’t.</strong><br><br><br>のように Yes/No&nbsp;で答えることができます。</p>



<p><strong><br></strong><br>&#8230;とまぁ、こんな感じで<strong>&nbsp;Have</strong>/<strong>Has</strong>&nbsp;を文頭に置いて、文の最後にクエスチョンマークをつけます。<br><br><br>主語が三人称単数の場合は&nbsp;“<strong>has</strong>”&nbsp;を、それ以外の場合は&nbsp;“<strong>have</strong>”&nbsp;を使います。<br>&nbsp;<br><br><br><br>それでは、次の例文を疑問文にして声に出していってください。<br><br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">She has lived there since she was born.<br>「彼女は、生まれて以来そこに住んでいる。」</h4>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">They have lost the match.<br>「彼らは、その試合で負けちゃった。」</h4>



<p><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉  <strong>Has she</strong>&nbsp;lived there since she was born<strong>?</strong><br>「彼女は、生まれて以来そこに住んでいるの？」</h4>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉  <strong>Have they</strong>&nbsp;lost the match<strong>?</strong><br>「彼らは、その試合で負けちゃったの？」</h4>



<p><br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">The man has been loitering by the entrance since morning.<br>「その男は朝から、入り口のあたりをウロウロしている。」</h4>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">All the light bulbs have been replaced with new ones.<br>「すべての電球は、新しいものに交換されている。」</h4>



<p><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉  <strong>Has the man</strong>&nbsp;been loitering by the entrance since morning<strong>?</strong><br>「その男は朝から、入り口のあたりをウロウロしているのか？」</h4>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉  <strong>Have all the light bulbs</strong>&nbsp;been replaced with new ones<strong>?</strong><br>「すべての電球は、新しいものに交換されているのか？」</h4>



<p><br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">She has eaten nothing at all since last night.<br>「彼女は、昨夜から何も食べていない。」</h4>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">The mobile phone has been completely charged.<br>「そのケータイは、完全に充電されている。」</h4>



<p><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉  <strong>Has she</strong>&nbsp;eaten nothing at all since last night<strong>?</strong><br>「彼女は、昨夜から何も食べていないの？」</h4>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉  <strong>Has the mobile phone</strong>&nbsp;been completely charged<strong>?</strong><br>「そのケータイは、完全に充電されているの？」</h4>



<p><br><br>いかがでしたか？<br><br></p>



<p>疑問文のカタチに慣れてきたら、自分でもオリジナルの文をつくってみて、声に出してつぶやいてみましょう。<br><br></p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><span id="toc5"><strong>疑問詞&nbsp;“Wh”&nbsp;を使った疑問文</strong></span></h2>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="510" height="340" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/11/camylla-battani.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-11844" srcset="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/11/camylla-battani.jpg 510w, https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/11/camylla-battani-300x200.jpg 300w" sizes="(max-width: 510px) 100vw, 510px" /><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">image by Camylla Battani</figcaption></figure>



<p>疑問詞と言えば&#8230;<br><br></p>



<ul class="wp-block-list">
<li><strong>What?&nbsp;</strong>(何？) </li>



<li><strong>Which?&nbsp;</strong>(どれ？)</li>



<li><strong>When?&nbsp;</strong>(いつ？)</li>



<li><strong>Where?&nbsp;</strong>(どこ？)</li>



<li><strong>Who?&nbsp;</strong>(誰？)</li>



<li><strong>Why?&nbsp;</strong>(なぜ？)</li>



<li><strong>How?&nbsp;</strong>(どのように？)</li>
</ul>



<p><br><br>のことですよね。</p>



<p><br>これらから始まる疑問文は、答えは何にでもなりえるのでYes/No&nbsp;では答えられません。</p>



<p>疑問詞を使った疑問文のカタチは、疑問詞をアタマに持ってきて、その後に&nbsp;be動詞、または文章に一般動詞が含まれる場合はdo、does、did&nbsp;、have、has&nbsp;などが続きます。</p>



<p><br>というわけで、まずはこちらの文を見てください。</p>



<p></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">Masaki is playing badminton with his girlfriend in the garden.<br>「マサキは、庭で彼女とバトミントンをしている。」</h4>



<p><br>この文をもとに、疑問文を作っていきます。</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading"><span id="toc6"><strong>What?</strong></span></h3>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="510" height="340" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/11/waldemar-brandt-1-1.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-11881" srcset="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/11/waldemar-brandt-1-1.jpg 510w, https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/11/waldemar-brandt-1-1-300x200.jpg 300w" sizes="(max-width: 510px) 100vw, 510px" /><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">image by Waldemar Brandt</figcaption></figure>



<p>マサキが「<strong>何</strong>」をやっているのかを知りたい場合は、「<strong>何</strong>」にあたる「<strong>バトミントン</strong>」が&nbsp;“<strong>what</strong>”&nbsp;になりますよね。<br></p>



<p>この場合は疑問詞である&nbsp;“what”&nbsp;をアタマに持ってきて、次にbe動詞をつなげ、最後にクエスチョンマークをつけて完成です。<br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">Masaki is playing badminton with his girlfriend in the garden.</h4>



<p></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉&nbsp;&nbsp;Masaki is playing&nbsp;<strong>what</strong>&nbsp;with his girlfriend in the garden.</h4>



<p></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>👉</strong><strong>&nbsp;&nbsp;What</strong>&nbsp;<strong>is</strong>&nbsp;Masaki playing with his girlfriend in the garden<strong>?</strong></h4>



<p><br></p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading"><span id="toc7"><strong>Who?</strong></span></h3>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="510" height="365" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/11/carolina-C7-1.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-11883" srcset="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/11/carolina-C7-1.jpg 510w, https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/11/carolina-C7-1-300x215.jpg 300w" sizes="(max-width: 510px) 100vw, 510px" /><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">image by Carolina</figcaption></figure>



<p>「<strong>誰</strong>」がバトミントンをしているのか知りたい。この場合は、「<strong>マサキとその彼女</strong>」がそれにあたるので、”<strong>who</strong>”&nbsp;になります。そして２人いるので&nbsp;“is”&nbsp;は複数形の&nbsp;“are”&nbsp;に置き換えます。<br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">Masaki is playing badminton with his girlfriend in the garden.</h4>



<p></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉&nbsp;&nbsp;<strong>Who</strong>&nbsp;<strong>are</strong>&nbsp;playing badminton in the garden<strong>?</strong></h4>



<p><br><br><br>今度は、マサキが<strong>誰</strong>とバトミントンをしているのか知りたいとき。<br><br><br>この場合は「<strong>マサキの彼女</strong>」がそれにあたるので、”<strong>who</strong>”&nbsp;となります。<br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">Masaki is playing badminton with his girlfriend in the garden.</h4>



<p></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉&nbsp;&nbsp;Masaki is playing badminton with&nbsp;<strong>who</strong>&nbsp;in the garden.</h4>



<p></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉&nbsp;&nbsp;<strong>Who</strong>&nbsp;<strong>is&nbsp;</strong>Masaki playing badminton with in the garden<strong>?</strong></h4>



<p><br><br>“with”&nbsp;がそのまま残されているのに注目ですね。<br><br></p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading"><span id="toc8"><strong>Where?</strong></span></h3>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="510" height="382" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/11/linus-ekenstam-1.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-11884" srcset="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/11/linus-ekenstam-1.jpg 510w, https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/11/linus-ekenstam-1-300x225.jpg 300w" sizes="(max-width: 510px) 100vw, 510px" /><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">image by Linus Ekenstam</figcaption></figure>



<p><strong>どこ</strong>でバトミントンをしているのか知りたい。この場合は、「<strong>庭</strong>」がそれにあたるので&nbsp;”<strong>where</strong>”&nbsp;になります。<br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">Masaki is playing badminton with his girlfriend in the garden.</h4>



<p></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉&nbsp;&nbsp;Masaki is playing badminton with his girlfriend&nbsp;<strong>where</strong>.</h4>



<p></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉&nbsp;&nbsp;<strong>Where</strong>&nbsp;<strong>is&nbsp;</strong>Masaki playing badminton with his girlfriend<strong>?</strong></h4>



<p><strong><br></strong><br>この文で質問できる情報はこれぐらいですかね。<br></p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading"><span id="toc9">How?</span></h3>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="510" height="325" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/11/matt-ridley-1.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-11885" srcset="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/11/matt-ridley-1.jpg 510w, https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/11/matt-ridley-1-300x191.jpg 300w" sizes="(max-width: 510px) 100vw, 510px" /><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">image by Matt Ridley</figcaption></figure>



<p>今度は、同じようなプロセスで &#8220;how&#8221; を見ていきます。<br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">He goes to work by bus.&nbsp;<br>「彼はバスで仕事に行く。」</h4>



<p><br><br>「<strong>どうやって</strong>」彼が通勤しているか知りたい。<br><br>すると今回の場合「<strong>バスで</strong>」が&nbsp;“<strong>how</strong>”&nbsp;にあたりますよね。</p>



<p><br>というわけで&#8230;<br><br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">He goes to work by bus.&nbsp;</h4>



<p></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉&nbsp;&nbsp;He goes to work&nbsp;<strong>how</strong>.</h4>



<p><br><br>ここではbe動詞ではなく、一般動詞がつかわれているので、”does”&nbsp;を持ってきて、動詞を原形にもどします。<br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉  He <strong>does go</strong> to work <strong>how</strong>.</h4>



<p><br><br>でもって、最後に順番をいれかえて&#8230;<br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉&nbsp;&nbsp;<strong>How does</strong>&nbsp;he go to work<strong>?</strong></h4>



<p><br><br>&#8230;となります。<br></p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading"><span id="toc10">Which?</span></h3>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="510" height="340" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/11/thomas-evans-1-1.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-11886" srcset="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/11/thomas-evans-1-1.jpg 510w, https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/11/thomas-evans-1-1-300x200.jpg 300w" sizes="(max-width: 510px) 100vw, 510px" /><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">image by Thomas Evans</figcaption></figure>



<p>最後にもう一つ、いっときましょうか。<br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">Yours are the red ones out of these.<br>「これらのうちの赤色のやつが、あなたのモノです。」</h4>



<p><br><br><br>「<strong>どれ</strong>」が、あなたのモノなのかを知りたい。<br><br>すると、この場合「<strong>その赤色のやつ</strong>」が 「<strong>どれ</strong>＝<strong>which</strong>」➡︎「<strong>どのやつ</strong>&nbsp;＝&nbsp;<strong>which ones</strong>」にあたりますよね。<br><br><br><br>ということで&#8230;<br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">Yours are the red ones out of these.</h4>



<p></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉&nbsp;&nbsp;Yours are&nbsp;<strong>which ones</strong>&nbsp;out of these.</h4>



<p></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">👉&nbsp;&nbsp;<strong>Which ones are</strong>&nbsp;yours out of these<strong>?</strong></h4>



<p><br><br>となります。<br><br><br><br><br>このような感じで「どこ、何、誰など」にあたる部分を疑問詞に置きかえて、それを文頭に持ってきて疑問文をつくっていきます。<br></p>



<p>とりあえず、例文をここに何個かならべておくので、これらを声に出して読んで、型を身につけましょう。<br><br><br></p>



<p>What was his name?<br><br>What was I watching last night?<br><br>What am I thinking about?<br><br>What have I done?<br><br>What did my daughter see in the sky last night?<br><br>What was I supposed to do in such a situation?<br><br><br><br></p>



<p>Which colour is your favourite?<br><br>Which one was more important?<br><br>Which way did I want to go?<br><br>Which was good for Alex?<br><br>Which one did you choose in the end?</p>



<p><br><br><br>When did I see him?<br><br>When was the last time I played the piano?<br><br>When does he come to my house?<br><br>When did we meet up?<br><br>When was your birthday?<br><br><br><br><br><br>Where is he from?<br><br>Where does he come from?<br><br>Where do you live?<br><br>Where did I drop my wallet last night?<br><br>Where were you?<br><br><br></p>



<p><br>Who am I supposed to meet there?&nbsp;<br><br>Who did you go to the concert with?<br><br>Who do you think you are?<br><br>Who was Jack playing basketball with?<br><br>Who were they?<br><br><br><br><br><br>Why did you go there?<br><br>Why did I tell her the truth?<br><br>Why has he been waiting for her for such a long time?<br><br>Why have they got your number?<br><br>Why did I forget to lock my bike?</p>



<p><br><br><br>How did you do it?<br><br>How is it possible?<br><br>How did you know it was him?<br><br>How did it happen?<br><br>How am I supposed to know it?<br><br><br></p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><span id="toc11"><strong>間接疑問文</strong></span></h2>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="510" height="340" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/11/towfiqu-barbhuiya.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-11845" srcset="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/11/towfiqu-barbhuiya.jpg 510w, https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/11/towfiqu-barbhuiya-300x200.jpg 300w" sizes="(max-width: 510px) 100vw, 510px" /><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">image by towfiqu barbhulya</figcaption></figure>



<p>まず、間接疑問文っていうのは、自分がよく知らない相手に何かを質問する際などに、直接の疑問文、例えば&#8230;<br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">Where can I find a cash machine around here?”&nbsp;<br>「この辺りでキャッシュマシーンはどこにあるんだい？」</h4>



<p><br><br>みたいな感じで話しかけると、相手によっては面食らったり、ムッとしてしまう可能性があるので、文頭に&nbsp;“Do you know&nbsp;〜”&nbsp;などを足すことによって、相手が気持ちよく答えてくれるようにもっていくのに使います。<br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>👉&nbsp;&nbsp;Do you know</strong>&nbsp;where <strong>I</strong> <strong>can</strong> find a cash machine&nbsp;around here?<br>「この辺りで、あなたはキャッシュマシーンがあるところを知っていますか？」</h4>



<p><br><br>この場合、”Do you know&nbsp;〜”&nbsp;&nbsp;がすでに、疑問文の構造を持っているので、その後の文は「<strong>主語&nbsp;+&nbsp;動詞</strong>」のカタチにもどします。</p>



<p><br><br>次の例文を見てみましょう。<br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">Where did you buy your ticket from?<br>「あなたのチケットはどこで買ったの？」</h4>



<p><br><br>これを間接的な表現にすると&#8230;<br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>👉&nbsp;Could you please tell me</strong>&nbsp;where you&nbsp;<strong>bought</strong>&nbsp;your ticket from?<br>「あなたがどこでチケットを買ったのか、教えていただけませんか？」</h4>



<p><br><br>ここでも同じように&nbsp;”Could you tell me&nbsp;〜”&nbsp;&nbsp;がすでに、疑問文の構造を持っているので、その後の文は、疑問文のカタチを作るために生じた&nbsp;“did”&nbsp;を引っこめて、原形にした動詞&nbsp;“buy”&nbsp;をもとの過去形&nbsp;“bought”&nbsp;にもどします。<br></p>



<p><br>つまり元々の疑問文のカタチを、<br><br></p>



<h5 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>疑問詞&nbsp;+&nbsp;主語&nbsp;+&nbsp;動詞</strong></h5>



<p><br><br>の語順にすることになります。</p>



<p><br><br><br>というわけで今回の記事は、以上となります。<br><br><br><br>結構なボリュームでしたが、最後までお付き合いいただきありがとうございました。<br><br>どうもお疲れ様です。<br><br><br><br><br>それではまた。<br></p>



<p>コンカズ</p>



<p>*この記事の英語ヴァージョンは 👉 <a rel="noopener follow" target="_blank" href="https://www.konkaz.com/eigo-jiru-027-english/">こちらから</a></p>
]]></content:encoded>
					
		
		
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		<item>
		<title>Negative Sentence Examples for self-talking practice《Eigo-jiru vol.26》￼</title>
		<link>https://www.konkaz.com/eigo-jiru-026-english/</link>
		
		<dc:creator><![CDATA[konkaz]]></dc:creator>
		<pubDate>Mon, 17 Oct 2022 08:49:23 +0000</pubDate>
				<category><![CDATA[英語汁 / Eigo-jiru]]></category>
		<guid isPermaLink="false">https://www.konkaz.com/?p=11026</guid>

					<description><![CDATA[A lot of basic negative example sentences are featured with this blog post for your "self-talk" practice. Please read them aloud several times so that the structure of them will stick to your head.]]></description>
										<content:encoded><![CDATA[
<p><br><br><br>Hi! It’s konkaz (<a rel="noopener nofollow" target="_blank" href="https://twitter.com/konkazuk"><strong>@konkazuk</strong></a>) here.&nbsp;<br><br><br>With this blog post, we are going to have a look at the basics of “negative sentences”.<br><br></p>



<div class="wp-block-cocoon-blocks-balloon-ex-box-1 speech-wrap sb-id-13 sbs-stn sbp-r sbis-cn cf block-box"><div class="speech-person"><figure class="speech-icon"><img decoding="async" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/09/bubble-0001.jpg" alt="" class="speech-icon-image"/></figure><div class="speech-name"></div></div><div class="speech-balloon">
<p>It’s very important to be able to say “No” to what you don’t want to accept, isn’t it?</p>
</div></div>



<p><br>When it comes to negation, I’ve got this story which is about what happened in the very beginning of my London life; the time I could hardly speak or understand English.&nbsp;</p>



<p>I was reading a book whose title was something like&#8230; “Japanese people cannot say No”, and having been encouraged by the book, I successfully turned the engineers who had come all the way to fix our washing machine away at the door three days in a row by just saying “No!”. </p>



<p>It goes without saying that my flat mates gave me a very cold look.<br><br><br><br><strong>The act of negating is very important!</strong>&nbsp;W<br><br></p>



<p>Well, that’s enough of my appalling story and let me take things seriously from here.<br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">The aim of my blog post is to improve our English-speaking skill, so I encourage you to&nbsp;<strong>read example sentences aloud without fail&nbsp;</strong>even if you find them easy.&nbsp;</h4>



<p><br><br>Anyway, let’s get started!<br></p>



<p></p>



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<p></p>




  <div id="toc" class="toc tnt-none toc-center tnt-none border-element"><input type="checkbox" class="toc-checkbox" id="toc-checkbox-9"><label class="toc-title" for="toc-checkbox-9">目次</label>
    <div class="toc-content">
    <ul class="toc-list open"></li><li><a href="#toc1" tabindex="0"><strong>Basic negative sentences with “not”</strong></a><ul><li><a href="#toc2" tabindex="0"><strong>Placing don’t (do + not) before general verb</strong></a></li><li><a href="#toc3" tabindex="0"><strong>Placing didn’t (did + not) before general verb</strong></a></li><li><a href="#toc4" tabindex="0"><strong>I am + not&nbsp;〜</strong></a></li><li><a href="#toc5" tabindex="0"><strong>Past form / I wasn’t (was + not)&nbsp;〜</strong></a></li><li><a href="#toc6" tabindex="0"><strong>I can’t&nbsp;〜&nbsp;/ I cannot&nbsp;〜</strong></a></li><li><a href="#toc7" tabindex="0"><strong>Negative sentences with continuous form</strong></a></li><li><a href="#toc8" tabindex="0"><strong>Negative sentences with present perfect form</strong></a></li><li><a href="#toc9" tabindex="0"><strong>Negative sentences with future form</strong></a></li></ul></li><li><a href="#toc10" tabindex="0"><strong>Expressing negation without using “not”</strong></a><ul><li><a href="#toc11" tabindex="0"><strong>Negative sentences with “no”</strong></a></li><li><a href="#toc12" tabindex="0"><strong>Negative sentences with “never”</strong></a></li><li><a href="#toc13" tabindex="0"><strong>nothing / no one・nobody / nowhere</strong></a></li><li><a href="#toc14" tabindex="0"><strong>none</strong></a></li><li><a href="#toc15" tabindex="0"><strong>neither</strong></a></li></ul></li><li><a href="#toc16" tabindex="0"><strong>Negative sentences that begin with “It’s not”</strong></a></li><li><a href="#toc17" tabindex="0"><strong>“too &#8230; to&nbsp;〜” structure</strong></a></li></ul>
    </div>
  </div>

<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><span id="toc1"><strong>Basic negative sentences with “not”</strong></span></h2>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="510" height="341" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/karsten-winegeart-copy.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-11029" srcset="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/karsten-winegeart-copy.jpg 510w, https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/karsten-winegeart-copy-300x201.jpg 300w" sizes="(max-width: 510px) 100vw, 510px" /><figcaption>image by Karsten Winegeart</figcaption></figure>



<p>Since there are several ways to express negation, let’s just begin with some basic ones that are frequently used in our everyday life.&nbsp;&nbsp;<br></p>



<h5 class="wp-block-heading">As I stated earlier, the theme of this blog site is to improve our speaking skill by applying “self-talking” method, hence most of the example sentences here will be starting with “<strong>I</strong>”</h5>



<p></p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading"><span id="toc2"><strong>Placing don’t (do + not) before general verb</strong></span></h3>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="510" height="368" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/jasmin-sessler-1.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-11030" srcset="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/jasmin-sessler-1.jpg 510w, https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/jasmin-sessler-1-300x216.jpg 300w" sizes="(max-width: 510px) 100vw, 510px" /><figcaption>image by Jasmin Sessler</figcaption></figure>



<p><br><strong>&#8220;don&#8217;t&#8221;</strong> is the most commonly used one, isn’t it?<br><br><br>Let’s just deal with example sentences straight away.<br><br></p>



<div class="wp-block-cocoon-blocks-balloon-ex-box-1 speech-wrap sb-id-13 sbs-stn sbp-r sbis-cn cf block-box"><div class="speech-person"><figure class="speech-icon"><img decoding="async" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/09/bubble-0001.jpg" alt="" class="speech-icon-image"/></figure><div class="speech-name"></div></div><div class="speech-balloon">
<p>Read them with a strong feeling of turning things down! w</p>
</div></div>



<p><br><br>I&nbsp;<strong>don’t</strong>&nbsp;like it!　<br><br><br><br>I<strong>&nbsp;don’t&nbsp;</strong>have it!&nbsp;<br><br><br><br>I&nbsp;<strong>don’t</strong>&nbsp;want it!&nbsp;<br><br><br><br>I&nbsp;<strong>don’t</strong>&nbsp;want to do that!&nbsp;<br><br><br><br>I&nbsp;<strong>don’t</strong>&nbsp;know about it!</p>



<p><br><br>When you pronounce <strong>“don’t”</strong>, it’s fine that the letter <strong>“t”</strong> goes silent but let it still have a space for the letter “t” just like having a vacant chair rather than cutting “t” off the word.<br><br>Or it can be just like “a staccato note” with music.<br><br><br><br>Some of those who are often experiencing stressful occasions where you can’t really say “no” to your seniors at work might have felt better after reading all these examples aloud. Let’s practice several times so that you will be able to say “no” in real life.<br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">You can also apply&nbsp;<strong>don’t (do + not)</strong>&nbsp;when the subject of the sentence is “You” or “They”, but when the sentence starts with “He”, “She” and “It”, you use&nbsp;<strong>doesn’t (does + not)</strong></h4>



<p></p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading"><span id="toc3"><strong>Placing didn’t (did + not) before general verb</strong></span></h3>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="510" height="346" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/margarita-kosior-1.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-11031" srcset="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/margarita-kosior-1.jpg 510w, https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/margarita-kosior-1-300x204.jpg 300w" sizes="(max-width: 510px) 100vw, 510px" /><figcaption>image by Margarita Kosior</figcaption></figure>



<p>Let’s go through the same examples with the past form.<br><br><br><br><br>I&nbsp;<strong>didn’t</strong>&nbsp;like it!　<br><br><br><br>I<strong>&nbsp;did’t&nbsp;</strong>have it!&nbsp;<br><br><br><br>I&nbsp;<strong>didn’t</strong>&nbsp;want it!&nbsp;<br><br><br><br>I&nbsp;<strong>didn’t</strong>&nbsp;want to do that!&nbsp;<br><br><br><br>I&nbsp;<strong>didn’t</strong>&nbsp;know about it!<br><br><br><br><br>I guess you have read them aloud with a slightly calmer vibe, because it’s about the past&#8230; or maybe not. It probably depends on its situation. w<br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">By the way, you can apply&nbsp;<strong>didn’t (did + not)</strong>&nbsp;for any sentences with past tense irrespective of their subject.</h4>



<p><br></p>



<div class="wp-block-cocoon-blocks-balloon-ex-box-1 speech-wrap sb-id-13 sbs-stn sbp-r sbis-cn cf block-box"><div class="speech-person"><figure class="speech-icon"><img decoding="async" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/09/bubble-0001.jpg" alt="" class="speech-icon-image"/></figure><div class="speech-name"></div></div><div class="speech-balloon">
<p>Furthermore, when you turn things down categorically, the word “not” is emphasised and is used separately like “do not” or “did not”.</p>
</div></div>



<p><br><br>I do&nbsp;<strong>not</strong>&nbsp;like it!<br><br><br><br>I do&nbsp;<strong>not</strong>&nbsp;have it!&nbsp;<br><br><br><br>I did&nbsp;<strong>not&nbsp;</strong>want it!&nbsp;<br><br><br><br>I did&nbsp;<strong>not</strong>&nbsp;want to do that!<br><br></p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading"><span id="toc4"><strong>I am + not&nbsp;〜</strong></span></h3>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="510" height="510" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/michael-sala-1.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-11032" srcset="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/michael-sala-1.jpg 510w, https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/michael-sala-1-300x300.jpg 300w, https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/michael-sala-1-150x150.jpg 150w, https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/michael-sala-1-200x200.jpg 200w" sizes="(max-width: 510px) 100vw, 510px" /><figcaption>image by Michael Sala</figcaption></figure>



<p>You can simply apply your situation to  “ 〜 ”  to make your sentence.<br><br><br>Although there are exceptions, “adjectives” or “nouns” are normally used.</p>



<p>And&#8230; shortened form “<strong>I’m</strong>” is often used instead of “I am”.</p>



<p><br><br><br><strong>I’m not</strong>&nbsp;happy with (about) this.<br></p>



<p><strong>I’m not</strong>&nbsp;hungry, yet.<br></p>



<p><strong>I’m not</strong>&nbsp;good at playing tennis.<br></p>



<p><strong>I’m not</strong>&nbsp;interested in what you are offering me.<br></p>



<p><strong>I’m not</strong>&nbsp;completely disappointed with the result.<br></p>



<p><strong>I’m not</strong>&nbsp;you!<br></p>



<p><strong>I’m not</strong>&nbsp;a machine!<br></p>



<p><strong>I’m not</strong>&nbsp;there, yet.<br><br></p>



<p><br>It actually does sound stronger when not is individually pronounced, doesn’t it?<br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">You can also apply&nbsp;<strong>aren’t (are + not)</strong>&nbsp;when the subject of the sentence is “You” or “They”, and use&nbsp;<strong>isn’t (is + not)&nbsp;</strong>with “He”, “She” and “It”.</h4>



<p><br></p>



<div class="wp-block-cocoon-blocks-balloon-ex-box-1 speech-wrap sb-id-13 sbs-stn sbp-r sbis-cn cf block-box"><div class="speech-person"><figure class="speech-icon"><img decoding="async" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/09/bubble-0001.jpg" alt="" class="speech-icon-image"/></figure><div class="speech-name"></div></div><div class="speech-balloon">
<p>By the way, are you reading the sentences aloud?</p>
</div></div>



<p></p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading"><span id="toc5"><strong>Past form / I wasn’t (was + not)&nbsp;〜</strong></span></h3>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="510" height="340" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/marco-lastella-1.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-11033" srcset="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/marco-lastella-1.jpg 510w, https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/marco-lastella-1-300x200.jpg 300w" sizes="(max-width: 510px) 100vw, 510px" /><figcaption>image by Marco Lastella</figcaption></figure>



<p>This time around, “<strong>not</strong>” is<strong>&nbsp;</strong>combined with “<strong>was</strong>” and they will become “<strong>wasn’t</strong>”.</p>



<p><br><br>I&nbsp;<strong>wasn’t</strong>&nbsp;happy with (about) that!<br></p>



<p>I&nbsp;<strong>wasn’t</strong>&nbsp;hungry, yet.<br></p>



<p>I&nbsp;<strong>wasn’t</strong>&nbsp;good at playing tennis.<br></p>



<p>I<strong>&nbsp;wasn’t&nbsp;</strong>interested in what you were offering me.<br></p>



<p>I&nbsp;<strong>wasn’t&nbsp;</strong>completely disappointed with the result.<br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">With the past form, when the subject of the sentence is “You” or “They”, you apply&nbsp;<strong>weren’t (were + not)</strong>&nbsp;and with “He”, “She” and “It”, you use&nbsp;<strong>wasn’t (was + not)</strong></h4>



<p></p>



<h5 class="wp-block-heading">By the way, the reason why the word “was” sounds more like “woz” when it is pronounced by native speaker is because when they pronounce the letter “w”,&nbsp;<strong>they pucker up their mouth much more than we do</strong>!</h5>



<p><br>So, keeping this in mind might help you pronounce it better.<br></p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading"><span id="toc6"><strong>I can’t&nbsp;〜&nbsp;/ I cannot&nbsp;〜</strong></span></h3>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="510" height="309" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/jen-theodore-1.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-11034" srcset="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/jen-theodore-1.jpg 510w, https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/jen-theodore-1-300x182.jpg 300w" sizes="(max-width: 510px) 100vw, 510px" /><figcaption>image by Jen Theodore </figcaption></figure>



<p>I presume we use the sentences that begin with “I can’t&nbsp;〜&nbsp;/ I cannot&nbsp;〜” very often.<br><br><br>I’m sure we go like&#8230;&nbsp;&nbsp;“Gurrrrrr, I can’t open this lid!!!!” when we try to open the jar of “Gohan-desuyo”, don’t we? w<br><br><br></p>



<p>I&nbsp;<strong>can’t</strong>&nbsp;open this!<br></p>



<p>I&nbsp;<strong>can’t</strong>&nbsp;do this!<br></p>



<p>I&nbsp;<strong>can’t</strong>&nbsp;call her now!<br></p>



<p>I&nbsp;<strong>can’t</strong>&nbsp;fix it!<br></p>



<p>I&nbsp;<strong>can’t</strong>&nbsp;sleep!<br></p>



<p>I&nbsp;<strong>can’t</strong>&nbsp;wait!<br><br><br><br>When you go emotional, the sentence that comes out of your mouth tends to be shorter than usual, I reckon&#8230;<br><br>Generally, those sentences are followed by “(It’s) Because ~“&nbsp;to give some reason for why you can’t do it.</p>



<p>If you think you can come up with any reasons for each example sentence, then please add them to it and read them aloud!<br><br></p>



<div class="wp-block-cocoon-blocks-balloon-ex-box-1 speech-wrap sb-id-16 sbs-stn sbp-r sbis-cn cf block-box"><div class="speech-person"><figure class="speech-icon"><img decoding="async" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/09/bubble-0004.jpg" alt="" class="speech-icon-image"/></figure><div class="speech-name"></div></div><div class="speech-balloon">
<p>Also, when it comes to pronunciation, “can’t” is a good example to hear the difference between British Accent and American accent.</p>
</div></div>



<p></p>



<p>I have found an interesting article that comes with YouTube video about it, so if you would like to have a look, here is the link.</p>



<p>👉 <a rel="noopener nofollow" target="_blank" href="https://www.simpleenglishvideos.com/pronounce-can-cant-british-american-english/">Simple English videos / How to say Can and Can’t in British and American</a></p>



<p><br>&#8230;And one more thing.&nbsp;</p>



<p>As for the difference between “can’t” and “cannot”, it is said that “can’t” is casually used while “cannot” is preferrable for formal writing.<br></p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading"><span id="toc7"><strong>Negative sentences with continuous form</strong></span></h3>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="510" height="341" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/rhand-mccoy-2.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-11039" srcset="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/rhand-mccoy-2.jpg 510w, https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/rhand-mccoy-2-300x201.jpg 300w" sizes="(max-width: 510px) 100vw, 510px" /><figcaption>image by Rhand McCoy</figcaption></figure>



<h6 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>am + not + present participle (〜ing)</strong></h6>



<p>I presume that a negative sentence with continuous form can be typically used when somebody asks you a question like “Are you&nbsp;〜ing, now?” and you reply&#8230; “No, I’m not&nbsp;〜ing.”.&nbsp;<br><br><br>So, the chances to apply this form for self-talking practice might be slim&#8230; but anyway, let’s have a look!<br><br><br></p>



<p>I’<strong>m not&nbsp;</strong>do<strong>ing</strong>&nbsp;very well.<br></p>



<p>I’<strong>m not&nbsp;</strong>tak<strong>ing</strong>&nbsp;it seriously.<br></p>



<p>I’<strong>m not&nbsp;</strong>think<strong>ing</strong>&nbsp;about what he said at all.<br></p>



<p>I<strong>’m not&nbsp;</strong>listen<strong>ing</strong>&nbsp;to her.&nbsp;<br></p>



<p>I’<strong>m not&nbsp;</strong>look<strong>ing</strong>&nbsp;after myself.<br><br></p>



<h6 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>was + not + present participle (〜ing)</strong></h6>



<p>The past form can possibly be used often when you look back at your past with regrettable feeling?<br><br><br></p>



<p>I&nbsp;<strong>wasn’t&nbsp;</strong>do<strong>ing</strong>&nbsp;very well.<br></p>



<p>I&nbsp;<strong>wasn’t&nbsp;</strong>tak<strong>ing</strong>&nbsp;it seriously.<br></p>



<p>I&nbsp;<strong>wasn’t&nbsp;</strong>think<strong>ing</strong>&nbsp;about what he had said at all.<br></p>



<p>I<strong>&nbsp;wasn’t&nbsp;</strong>listen<strong>ing</strong>&nbsp;to her.&nbsp;I&nbsp;<strong>wasn’t&nbsp;</strong>look<strong>ing</strong>&nbsp;after myself.<br><br></p>



<p>When you express something that is certainly going to be happening in the near future, the form of “be + doing” is often used, so let’s try negative version&nbsp;<strong>“am + not&nbsp;</strong><strong>+ present participle (〜ing)”&nbsp;</strong>of it&#8230;<br></p>



<p><br><br>I’<strong>m not&nbsp;</strong>play<strong>ing</strong>&nbsp;tonight’s game.<br></p>



<p>I<strong>’m</strong>&nbsp;<strong>not</strong>&nbsp;see<strong>ing</strong>&nbsp;her this evening, because something urgent has happened.<br></p>



<p>I<strong>’m</strong>&nbsp;<strong>not</strong>&nbsp;pick<strong>ing</strong>&nbsp;him up this afternoon, because he is popping in his friend’s house.<br><br></p>



<p><br>And&#8230; you can also use the same form to give someone a&nbsp;<strong>flat refusal</strong>&nbsp;for what is happening in the future.<br><br><br></p>



<p>I<strong>’m not&nbsp;</strong>do<strong>ing</strong>&nbsp;it (no matter what you tell me)!<br></p>



<p>I<strong>’m not&nbsp;</strong>leav<strong>ing</strong>&nbsp;this place, because this is my house!<br></p>



<p>I<strong>’m not&nbsp;</strong>sha<strong>ring</strong>&nbsp;the information with you!<br><br><br></p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading"><span id="toc8"><strong>Negative sentences with present perfect form</strong></span></h3>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="510" height="340" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/tolga-ulkan-copy.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-11040" srcset="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/tolga-ulkan-copy.jpg 510w, https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/tolga-ulkan-copy-300x200.jpg 300w" sizes="(max-width: 510px) 100vw, 510px" /><figcaption>image by Tolga Ulkan</figcaption></figure>



<p>A negative sentences with present perfect tense is expressed with the form of&nbsp;<strong>“have + not + past participle”</strong>.</p>



<p>“have + not” is normally shortened as&nbsp;<strong>“haven’t”</strong>&nbsp;in a sentence and the word “yet” is often added to it.<br></p>



<p><br><br>I&nbsp;<strong>haven’t</strong>&nbsp;emailed him back, yet.<br></p>



<p>I&nbsp;<strong>haven’t</strong>&nbsp;had my breakfast, yet.<br></p>



<p>I&nbsp;<strong>haven’t</strong>&nbsp;done it, yet.<br></p>



<p>I&nbsp;<strong>haven’t</strong>&nbsp;heard from my sister, yet.<br></p>



<p>I&nbsp;<strong>haven’t</strong>&nbsp;told my dad about the news.<br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">With the present perfect form, when the subject of the sentence is “You” or “They”, you apply&nbsp;<strong>haven’t (have + not)</strong>and with “He”, “She” and “It”, you use&nbsp;<strong>hasn’t (has + not)&nbsp;</strong></h4>



<p><br></p>



<div class="wp-block-cocoon-blocks-balloon-ex-box-1 speech-wrap sb-id-13 sbs-stn sbp-r sbis-cn cf block-box"><div class="speech-person"><figure class="speech-icon"><img decoding="async" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/09/bubble-0001.jpg" alt="" class="speech-icon-image"/></figure><div class="speech-name"></div></div><div class="speech-balloon">
<p>Why not create your own sentences and<strong>&nbsp;</strong>speak them<strong>&nbsp;</strong>aloud?</p>
</div></div>



<p><br></p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading"><span id="toc9"><strong>Negative sentences with future form</strong></span></h3>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="431" height="287" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/Oleg-Gamulinskiy-1.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-11041" srcset="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/Oleg-Gamulinskiy-1.jpg 431w, https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/Oleg-Gamulinskiy-1-300x200.jpg 300w" sizes="(max-width: 431px) 100vw, 431px" /><figcaption>image by Oleg Gamulinskiy</figcaption></figure>



<p>There are two types of form you can apply to express negation for what is happening in the future.&nbsp;<br><br>One is&nbsp;<strong>“will + not (won’t)”</strong>; expressed by using an auxiliary verb “will” and the other one can be formed by placing&nbsp;<strong>“not”</strong>&nbsp;before present participle in the shape of&nbsp;<strong>“be + going to&nbsp;〜”</strong>.<br><br><br><br>Let’s begin with the form of&nbsp;<strong>“will + not (won’t)”</strong>.<br></p>



<h5 class="wp-block-heading">Keep this in mind that&nbsp;<strong>“will” is basically used when you are certain about what is coming in the near future</strong>.</h5>



<p><br>And it also sounds stronger and slightly&nbsp;<strong>more formal</strong>&nbsp;than “I’m not going to&nbsp;〜”.</p>



<p><br><br>I <strong>won’t</strong> have time to enjoy this cake.<br></p>



<p>I&nbsp;<strong>won’t</strong>&nbsp;be back home till tomorrow morning.<br></p>



<p>I&nbsp;<strong>won’t</strong>&nbsp;quit my job.<br></p>



<p>I&nbsp;<strong>won’t</strong>&nbsp;remember what I have learnt today because there’re too much of terminologies.<br><br><br>I&nbsp;<strong>won’t</strong>&nbsp;tell you the secret.<br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">Since “will” is an auxiliary verb,&nbsp;<strong>“won’t”</strong>&nbsp;can be applied to the sentences with any subjects.</h4>



<p><br><br><br>And as for the form of&nbsp;&nbsp;<strong>“I’m not going to&nbsp;〜”,&nbsp;</strong>it is used when you mention something that has been planned previously.<br></p>



<p><br><br>I<strong>’m not going to</strong>&nbsp;help her unless she changes her attitude.<br></p>



<p>I<strong>’m not going to</strong>&nbsp;play outside even if the weather is fine.<br></p>



<p>I<strong>’m not going to</strong>&nbsp;eat this, because there are some tomatoes in it.<br></p>



<p>I<strong>’m not going to</strong>&nbsp;join the army.<br></p>



<p>I<strong>’m not going to</strong>&nbsp;see her.<br><br><br><br></p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><span id="toc10"><strong>Expressing negation without using “not”</strong></span></h2>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="510" height="340" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/Igor-Link-1.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-11042" srcset="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/Igor-Link-1.jpg 510w, https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/Igor-Link-1-300x200.jpg 300w" sizes="(max-width: 510px) 100vw, 510px" /><figcaption>image by Igor Link</figcaption></figure>



<p>There are several ways to express negation without using “not”, and some basic ones were selected and have been featured here.&nbsp;</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading"><span id="toc11"><strong>Negative sentences with “no”</strong></span></h3>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="510" height="357" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/Engin_Akyurt-2.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-11043" srcset="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/Engin_Akyurt-2.jpg 510w, https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/Engin_Akyurt-2-300x210.jpg 300w" sizes="(max-width: 510px) 100vw, 510px" /><figcaption>image by Engin Akyurt</figcaption></figure>



<p></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">Since “no” is placed before noun, the sentence that includes “no” is created by using the verb “have” that expresses possession or with the form of “There is (are)&nbsp;〜”.</h4>



<p><br><br>Let’s have a look at the sentences with “have”&#8230;<br><br></p>



<p><br>I have&nbsp;<strong>no</strong>&nbsp;clue (idea)!<br><br><br>I have<strong>no</strong>&nbsp;regrets.<br><br><br>I have&nbsp;<strong>no</strong>&nbsp;siblings.<br><br><br></p>



<p>&#8230;and with the past tense.<br><br><br><br><br>I had <strong>no</strong> money.<br><br><br>I had <strong>no</strong> time for you to talk about that matter.<br><br><br><br><br>Now, let’s try with the form of <strong>“There is (are) 〜”</strong><br><br><strong><br><br><br></strong>There is <strong>no</strong> such a thing!<br><br><br>There is <strong>no</strong> way I can get out of here safely.<br><br><br>There are <strong>no</strong> bus stops on this side of the road.<br><br><br>There was <strong>no</strong> ketchup in the fridge.<br><br><br>There were <strong>no</strong> cashpoints in this shopping mall.<br><br></p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading"><span id="toc12"><strong>Negative sentences with “never”</strong></span></h3>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="510" height="321" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/azzedine-rouichi-1.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-11044" srcset="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/azzedine-rouichi-1.jpg 510w, https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/azzedine-rouichi-1-300x189.jpg 300w" sizes="(max-width: 510px) 100vw, 510px" /><figcaption>image by Azzedine Rouichi</figcaption></figure>



<p>“Never” is applied to express&nbsp;<strong>absolute negation</strong>&nbsp;meaning “not in any circumstances at all”.</p>



<p>So, let’s read these example sentences aloud with a strong sense of denial.<br><br><br><br><br>I <strong>never</strong> knew that.<br></p>



<p><strong>Never</strong>&nbsp;talk to strangers in this town！<br></p>



<p>I will&nbsp;<strong>never</strong>&nbsp;see her again.<br></p>



<p>I have&nbsp;<strong>never</strong>&nbsp;been to Africa.<br></p>



<p><strong>Never</strong>&nbsp;say never!<br></p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading"><span id="toc13"><strong>nothing / no one・nobody / nowhere</strong></span></h3>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="510" height="357" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/darian-garcia-1.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-11045" srcset="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/darian-garcia-1.jpg 510w, https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/darian-garcia-1-300x210.jpg 300w" sizes="(max-width: 510px) 100vw, 510px" /><figcaption>image by Darian Garcia</figcaption></figure>



<p><strong>“Nothing”</strong>&nbsp;means&nbsp;<strong>“not a single thing”</strong>&nbsp;or&nbsp;<strong>“not anything”,</strong>&nbsp;so the sentences with “nothing” are created by using the verb “have” that expresses possession or with the form of “There is (are)&nbsp;〜” just like how we did with “no” earlier.<br><br><br><br><br>&nbsp;I have&nbsp;<strong>nothing</strong>&nbsp;for you to give.<br>There is&nbsp;<strong>nothing</strong>&nbsp;for you to give.<br></p>



<p>I have&nbsp;<strong>nothing</strong>&nbsp;to lose.<br>There is&nbsp;<strong>nothing</strong>&nbsp;to lose.<br></p>



<p>The boy had&nbsp;<strong>nothing</strong>&nbsp;to wear.<br>There was&nbsp;<strong>nothing</strong>&nbsp;for the boy to wear.<br><br><br></p>



<p><strong>“no one”</strong>&nbsp;and&nbsp;<strong>“nobody”&nbsp;</strong>are applied<strong>&nbsp;</strong>to “<strong>people”</strong>&nbsp;with the same manner.<strong>&nbsp;<br></strong><br><br></p>



<p>I had&nbsp;<strong>no one</strong>&nbsp;to talk to.<br>There was&nbsp;<strong>no one</strong>&nbsp;I could talk to.<br></p>



<p>I have&nbsp;<strong>nobody</strong>&nbsp;to play with tomorrow.<br>There is&nbsp;<strong>nobody</strong>&nbsp;I can play with tomorrow.<br><br><br></p>



<h5 class="wp-block-heading">“no one” is slightly more formal than “nobody”, therefore it is often used to write some documents such as dissertation and essay.</h5>



<p><br><br>&#8230;and&nbsp;<strong>“nowhere”</strong>&nbsp;is used for places.<br><br><br><br>I have&nbsp;<strong>nowhere</strong>&nbsp;to stay tonight.<br>There is&nbsp;<strong>nowhere</strong>&nbsp;I can stay tonight.<br><strong><br></strong><br></p>



<p>“nothing” is often placed at the beginning of the sentence with a passive form.&nbsp;<br><br><br><br><br><strong>Nothing</strong>&nbsp;is permanent<br></p>



<p><strong>Nothing</strong>&nbsp;was said.<br></p>



<p><strong>Nothing</strong>&nbsp;was delivered.<br></p>



<p><strong>Nothing</strong>&nbsp;can be achieved if you don’t act right now.<br><br></p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading"><span id="toc14"><strong>none</strong></span></h3>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="510" height="345" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/alex_rainer-1.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-11046" srcset="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/alex_rainer-1.jpg 510w, https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/alex_rainer-1-300x203.jpg 300w" sizes="(max-width: 510px) 100vw, 510px" /><figcaption>image by Alex Rainer</figcaption></figure>



<p>“none” is often followed by a preposition “of” + collective noun, and its meaning is not even one of the group (often more than 3) of people or things.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“none” can be treated either as “singular” or as “plural”, but the latter is often used with spoken language.<br><br>When uncountable nouns or singular pronouns come after preposition “of”, it is treated as “singular”.<br><br></p>



<p><strong>None</strong>&nbsp;of them are mine.<br></p>



<p><strong>None</strong>&nbsp;of these mushrooms are poisonous.<br><br><br><strong>None</strong> of these paintings are original.<br></p>



<p><strong>None</strong>&nbsp;of this has happened.<br></p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading"><span id="toc15"><strong>neither</strong></span></h3>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="510" height="331" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/kyle-hinkson-1.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-11047" srcset="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/kyle-hinkson-1.jpg 510w, https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/kyle-hinkson-1-300x195.jpg 300w" sizes="(max-width: 510px) 100vw, 510px" /><figcaption>image by Kyle Hinkson</figcaption></figure>



<p><strong>“neither”&nbsp;</strong>is applied when you want to say two things that are linked are each untrue.<br><br></p>



<div class="wp-block-cocoon-blocks-balloon-ex-box-1 speech-wrap sb-id-17 sbs-stn sbp-r sbis-cn cf block-box"><div class="speech-person"><figure class="speech-icon"><img decoding="async" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/09/bubble-0002.jpg" alt="" class="speech-icon-image"/></figure><div class="speech-name"></div></div><div class="speech-balloon">
<p>In fact, it is absolutely fine to apply the word “neither” when more than two things are mentioned, however it is popularly used when two things are referred to.</p>
</div></div>



<p><br>“neither” can be a slightly tricky vocabulary, so let’s slow down a bit here. <br><br>(And don’t forget to read example sentences aloud! 💖)<br></p>



<p><strong>The word “neither” modifies singular nouns, therefore singular form of the verb is used in the sentence.&nbsp;</strong><br><br><br></p>



<p><strong>Neither</strong>&nbsp;guitar was broken.<br></p>



<p><strong>Neither</strong>&nbsp;towel is dry.<br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">When two things are mentioned, it is tempting to use the verb with plural form, but it actually is wrong.</h4>



<p><br><br>Then how about these sentences? (Well, the answer is included in the sentences, though. w)<br><br><br></p>



<p><strong>Neither</strong>&nbsp;of them is currently available.<br></p>



<p><strong>Neither</strong>&nbsp;of us cares about throwing the rubbish away.<br></p>



<p><strong>Neither</strong>&nbsp;of us was happy about the new place.<br><br></p>



<p>You might get confused because you see preposition “of” is followed by plural forms “them” and “us”, however, if you think like&#8230; the word “neither” is modifying each of “them” or “us”, you can treat them as singular ones, hence it makes sense that singular forms of the verb are being applied here.</p>



<p><br>However, in reality, usage of plural form of the verb has penetrated society as a spoken language.<br></p>



<div class="wp-block-cocoon-blocks-balloon-ex-box-1 speech-wrap sb-id-13 sbs-stn sbp-r sbis-cn cf block-box"><div class="speech-person"><figure class="speech-icon"><img decoding="async" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/09/bubble-0001.jpg" alt="" class="speech-icon-image"/></figure><div class="speech-name"></div></div><div class="speech-balloon">
<p><strong>By the way, if there are more than 3 people within “them” or “us”, the word “none” is generally applied in the sentence.</strong></p>
</div></div>



<p></p>



<h6 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>A common mistake that is often made by beginning learners of English</strong></h6>



<p><br>When you agree with someone, it often goes like&#8230;<br><br></p>



<p><strong>A:</strong>   ”I love piano jazz music.”</p>



<p><strong>B:</strong>   “Really? Me, too!”<br><br></p>



<p>But when you disagree with someone&#8230;<br><br></p>



<p><strong>A:</strong>   ”I don’t like smokers, to be honest.”</p>



<p><strong>B:</strong>   “Me too!”</p>



<p><br><br>If you translate what has been said by person B here into Japanese, nothing seems to be wrong, but&nbsp;<strong>it is actually wrong</strong>&nbsp;in English.</p>



<p>When you agree to someone’s negative remark,&nbsp;<strong>“Me neither!”</strong>&nbsp;is the correct answer.<br></p>



<h5 class="wp-block-heading">If the remark of person A is “I hate smokers, to be honest.”, as you can see that there is no negative form included within a sentence, hence you can use the phrase “Me too!”.</h5>



<p><br><br>By the way, the phrase “Me neither!” is used not just for replying to the sentences of “liking/disliking”, but you use it whenever you agree to someone’s remark with negative form.<br><br><br>Let’s read a few more sentences aloud so that you get used to the pattern of it.<br><br><br></p>



<p><strong>A:</strong>   I&nbsp;<strong>didn’t</strong>&nbsp;understand what she was saying.<strong><br><br>B</strong>:   <strong>Me neither!<br><br></strong></p>



<p><br><strong>A:</strong>   I <strong>didn’t</strong> know that he was an Italian.<strong><br><br>B:   Me neither!<br><br></strong></p>



<p><br><strong>A:</strong>   I <strong>don’t</strong> think that picnic will be happening with this weather.<strong><br><br>B:   Me neither!<br><br></strong></p>



<p><br><strong>A:</strong>   I <strong>don’t</strong> care about the colour of it.<strong><br><br>B:   Me neither!</strong><br><br></p>



<p><br><strong>A:</strong>   I <strong>didn&#8217;t</strong> know that it was your birthday !<strong><br><br>B:   Me neither! </strong>(<strong>w</strong>)<br><strong><br></strong></p>



<h6 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>How do you pronounce “neither”?</strong></h6>



<p>When it comes to the pronunciation of “neither”, I guess you realised the fact at some point of your listening process that there are two ways of pronouncing it, and you might be wondering which one of the two to choose&#8230;?<br><br><br>To be honest, you can simply pick whichever one is easy for you to pronounce, however&#8230;<br><br></p>



<p>🇬🇧&nbsp;&nbsp;British accent　<strong>&nbsp;</strong><strong>[naɪ.ðər]</strong></p>



<p>🇺🇸&nbsp;&nbsp;American accent&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<strong>[niː.ðər]</strong><br></p>



<p><br>As you can see, the difference derives from the accent of these two countries, so if you are particularly aiming at achieving one of these, then you probably better stick to the one！<br><br></p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><span id="toc16"><strong>Negative sentences that begin with “It’s not”</strong></span></h2>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="482" height="331" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/luke-ellis-2-1.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-11048" srcset="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/luke-ellis-2-1.jpg 482w, https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/luke-ellis-2-1-300x206.jpg 300w" sizes="(max-width: 482px) 100vw, 482px" /><figcaption>image by Luke Ellis</figcaption></figure>



<p>Starting negative sentences with “It’s not” is very common, so let’s master it here.</p>



<p>Even though the example sentences here are pieces of cake for you, please read them aloud so that they will come out of your mouth automatically.<br><br><br><strong>“It’s not&nbsp;〜&nbsp;for &#8230;”</strong><br><br><strong><br></strong></p>



<p><strong>It’s not</strong>&nbsp;good&nbsp;<strong>for</strong>&nbsp;me.<br></p>



<p><strong>It’s not</strong>&nbsp;enough<strong>for</strong>&nbsp;Steve.<br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">You can use the form of “It’s not&nbsp;〜” for the sentences with past tense, however “It wasn’t&nbsp;〜” is preferable so that the difference between present and past can be seen.</h4>



<p><br><br><br><strong>It wasn’t</strong>&nbsp;acceptable&nbsp;<strong>for</strong>&nbsp;them.<br></p>



<p><strong>It wasn&#8217;t</strong>&nbsp;attractive&nbsp;<strong>for</strong>&nbsp;women.&nbsp;<br><br></p>



<p><br>You can also add<strong> “to + verb” </strong>in order to create sentences more specific&#8230;<br><br><br><br><br><strong>It’s not</strong> difficult <strong>for</strong> me <strong>to</strong> use chopsticks.<br></p>



<p><strong>It’s not</strong>&nbsp;really easy&nbsp;<strong>for</strong>&nbsp;Jade&nbsp;<strong>to</strong>&nbsp;resist these sweets.<br></p>



<p><strong>It wasn’t</strong>&nbsp;possible&nbsp;<strong>for</strong>&nbsp;him&nbsp;<strong>to</strong>&nbsp;open the lid.<br></p>



<p><strong>It wasn’t</strong>&nbsp;loud enough&nbsp;<strong>for</strong>&nbsp;them&nbsp;<strong>to</strong>&nbsp;hear.<br></p>



<p><strong><br><br></strong>nouns are also applied instead of adjectives&#8230;<br><br><br></p>



<p><strong>It’s not</strong>&nbsp;a problem&nbsp;<strong>for</strong>&nbsp;me.<br></p>



<p><strong>It wasn’t</strong>&nbsp;a good timing&nbsp;<strong>for</strong>&nbsp;the cat&nbsp;<strong>to</strong>&nbsp;cross the road.<br><br><br></p>



<p>The position of&nbsp;<strong>“for person(s)/thing(s)”</strong>&nbsp;and&nbsp;<strong>“to+verb”</strong>&nbsp;can be swapped sometimes. <br><br>(It depends on the “flow” of the sentences.)<br><br><br></p>



<p><strong>It’s not</strong>&nbsp;difficult&nbsp;<strong>to</strong>&nbsp;understand&nbsp;<strong>for</strong>&nbsp;him.<br></p>



<p><strong>It’s not</strong>&nbsp;a straightforward issue&nbsp;<strong>to</strong>&nbsp;solve&nbsp;<strong>for</strong>&nbsp;the landlord.<br></p>



<p><strong>It wasn’t</strong>&nbsp;a practical way&nbsp;<strong>to</strong>&nbsp;carry out&nbsp;<strong>for</strong>&nbsp;the team.<br><br><br></p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><span id="toc17"><strong>“too &#8230; to&nbsp;〜” structure</strong></span></h2>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="510" height="343" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/simon-hurry-1.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-11049" srcset="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/simon-hurry-1.jpg 510w, https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/simon-hurry-1-300x202.jpg 300w" sizes="(max-width: 510px) 100vw, 510px" /><figcaption>image by Simon Hurry</figcaption></figure>



<p><strong>“too &#8230; to&nbsp;〜”</strong>&nbsp;&nbsp;is a structure that is popularly used in our daily life to form negative sentences.</p>



<p>As you have heard the phrase&nbsp;<strong>“too much!”</strong>, the nuance of negation within the structure is in the word&nbsp;<strong>“too”</strong>.<br><br></p>



<p>It&#8217;s too cold!&nbsp;<br><br>This is too tight!　<br><br>That is too small!&nbsp;&nbsp;<br></p>



<p><br>and then you add “to+verb” to complete the structure.<br></p>



<p>👉&nbsp;It&#8217;s too cold to hold!&nbsp;<br><br>👉&nbsp;This is too tight to take out!&nbsp;<br><br>👉&nbsp;That&#8217;s too small to wear!&nbsp;<br><br></p>



<p>“for person(s)/thing(s)” can be placed before “to+verb” if necessary.</p>



<p>Anyway, read them out many times so that the structure will come out of your mouth naturally.<br><br><br></p>



<p>I’m&nbsp;<strong>too</strong>&nbsp;tired&nbsp;<strong>to</strong>&nbsp;walk.<br></p>



<p>I’m&nbsp;<strong>too</strong>&nbsp;scared&nbsp;<strong>to</strong>&nbsp;move.<br></p>



<p>She was&nbsp;<strong>too</strong>&nbsp;worried&nbsp;<strong>to</strong>&nbsp;sleep.<br></p>



<p>It was&nbsp;<strong>too</strong>&nbsp;complicated for his level&nbsp;<strong>to</strong>&nbsp;solve.<br></p>



<p>It’s just&nbsp;<strong>too</strong>&nbsp;dark&nbsp;<strong>to</strong>&nbsp;see.<br></p>



<p>It was&nbsp;<strong>too</strong>&nbsp;sudden for me&nbsp;<strong>to</strong>&nbsp;react.<br></p>



<p>The ball was&nbsp;<strong>too</strong>&nbsp;fast&nbsp;<strong>to</strong>&nbsp;catch.<br></p>



<p>The girl was&nbsp;<strong>too</strong>&nbsp;young&nbsp;<strong>to</strong>&nbsp;understand the meaning of it.<br></p>



<p>I was&nbsp;<strong>too</strong>&nbsp;shy&nbsp;<strong>to</strong>&nbsp;sing in front of everyone.<br><br></p>



<p><strong>Anyway, try to create your own sentences with whatever adjectives that might come up in your mind, and speak them aloud!</strong><br><br></p>



<p>Anyway, thanks for reading all the way through despite its volume.<br><br>&#8220;Otsukare sama deshita!&#8221;</p>



<p><br>konkaz</p>



<p>👉 * <a rel="noopener follow" target="_blank" href="https://www.konkaz.com/eigo-jiru-026/">Japanese version of this blog post</a></p>
]]></content:encoded>
					
		
		
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		<item>
		<title>英語のスピーキング【否定文】徹底練習でキッパリ断る！《英語汁 第26号》￼</title>
		<link>https://www.konkaz.com/eigo-jiru-026/</link>
		
		<dc:creator><![CDATA[konkaz]]></dc:creator>
		<pubDate>Fri, 07 Oct 2022 17:48:54 +0000</pubDate>
				<category><![CDATA[英語汁 / Eigo-jiru]]></category>
		<guid isPermaLink="false">https://www.konkaz.com/?p=10862</guid>

					<description><![CDATA[今回の記事には、シンプルな「否定形」の英語の例文が、練習用にたくさんフィーチャーされています。実際の場面で反射的に口から出てくるように、繰り返し声に出して読んでみてください。]]></description>
										<content:encoded><![CDATA[
<p></p>



<p><br>どうも　コンカズ&nbsp;(<a rel="noopener nofollow" target="_blank" href="https://twitter.com/konkazuk"><strong>@konkazuk</strong></a>)&nbsp;です&nbsp;。</p>



<p>今回の記事では初心にもどって、英語の基本的な「否定文」をチェックしていきます。<br><br></p>



<div class="wp-block-cocoon-blocks-balloon-ex-box-1 speech-wrap sb-id-13 sbs-stn sbp-r sbis-cn cf block-box"><div class="speech-person"><figure class="speech-icon"><img decoding="async" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/09/bubble-0001.jpg" alt="" class="speech-icon-image"/></figure><div class="speech-name"></div></div><div class="speech-balloon">
<p>自分にとって&nbsp;”Yes”&nbsp;ではない物事を、ちゃんと否定することができるって大事なことですよね。</p>
</div></div>



<p></p>



<p><br>否定と言えば、僕がまだ英語がチンプンカンプンの状態でロンドンに住みはじめた頃、当時「Noと言えない日本人」みたいな本を読んでいて、洗濯機の修理に来てくれたエンジニアを３日連続「No!」で門前払い、フラットシェアをしていたイギリス人たちに白い目で見られたイタイ記憶がいまだに新鮮に残っております。<br><br><br><strong>否定は大事です</strong>。W</p>



<p>とまぁ、ふざけるのはこの辺までにしておきまして、ここからの内容は超真面目です。<br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">僕のブログでは、スピーキングの上達を目的としていますので、たいしたことないレヴェルの例文でも必ず「<strong>声に出して</strong>」読んでいってください。</h4>



<p><br><br>それではいってみましょう。</p>



<p></p>



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<p></p>




  <div id="toc" class="toc tnt-none toc-center tnt-none border-element"><input type="checkbox" class="toc-checkbox" id="toc-checkbox-10"><label class="toc-title" for="toc-checkbox-10">目次</label>
    <div class="toc-content">
    <ul class="toc-list open"></li><li><a href="#toc1" tabindex="0"><strong>not を使った基本的な否定文</strong></a><ul><li><a href="#toc2" tabindex="0"><strong>一般動詞の前に　</strong><strong>don’t (do + not)&nbsp;</strong></a></li><li><a href="#toc3" tabindex="0"><strong>一般動詞の前に　didn’t (did + not)&nbsp;</strong></a></li><li><a href="#toc4" tabindex="0"><strong>わたしは〜ではない。</strong><strong>I am + not&nbsp;〜</strong></a></li><li><a href="#toc5" tabindex="0"><strong>過去形</strong><strong>&nbsp;&nbsp;I wasn’t&nbsp;</strong>(was + not) </a></li><li><a href="#toc6" tabindex="0"><strong>わたしは 〜できない。</strong><strong>I can‘t&nbsp;〜&nbsp;/ I cannot&nbsp;〜</strong></a></li><li><a href="#toc7" tabindex="0"><strong>現在進行形の否定文</strong></a></li><li><a href="#toc8" tabindex="0"><strong>現在完了形の否定文</strong><strong></strong></a></li><li><a href="#toc9" tabindex="0"><strong>未来形の否定文</strong></a></li></ul></li><li><a href="#toc10" tabindex="0"><strong>not 以外の言葉で否定を表現</strong></a><ul><li><a href="#toc11" tabindex="0"><strong>no を使った否定文</strong></a></li><li><a href="#toc12" tabindex="0"><strong>never&nbsp;を使った否定文</strong></a></li><li><a href="#toc13" tabindex="0"><strong>nothing / no one・nobody / nowhereを使った表現</strong></a></li><li><a href="#toc14" tabindex="0"><strong>none&nbsp;を使った表現</strong></a></li><li><a href="#toc15" tabindex="0"><strong>neither&nbsp;を使った否定文</strong></a></li></ul></li><li><a href="#toc16" tabindex="0"><strong>否定の文章を </strong><strong>”It‘s&nbsp;” で始める</strong></a></li><li><a href="#toc17" tabindex="0"><strong>too … to 構文を使いこなす。</strong></a></li></ul>
    </div>
  </div>

<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><span id="toc1"><strong>not を使った基本的な否定文</strong></span></h2>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full is-resized"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/karsten-winegeart.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-10865" width="511" height="342" srcset="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/karsten-winegeart.jpg 510w, https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/karsten-winegeart-300x201.jpg 300w" sizes="(max-width: 511px) 100vw, 511px" /><figcaption>image by Karsten Winegeart</figcaption></figure>



<p>否定文とは言っても、時制とか種類とかいろいろ絡んでくるので、とりあえずはスピーキングにおいて、普段から最も使われているシンプルな表現から、ボチボチやっていきましょう。<br></p>



<h5 class="wp-block-heading">ここでは、独り言で話しながら英語のスピーキングを鍛えていくことがメインとされているため、たいていの例文は&nbsp;“<strong>I</strong>”&nbsp;から始まっています。</h5>



<p></p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading"><span id="toc2"><strong>一般動詞の前に　</strong><strong>don’t (do + not)&nbsp;</strong></span></h3>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="510" height="368" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/jasmin-sessler.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-10866" srcset="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/jasmin-sessler.jpg 510w, https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/jasmin-sessler-300x216.jpg 300w" sizes="(max-width: 510px) 100vw, 510px" /><figcaption>image by Jasmin Sessler</figcaption></figure>



<p><br>まずは、日常で一番よく使われるカタチですね。</p>



<p>いきなり例文からいきます。<br><br></p>



<div class="wp-block-cocoon-blocks-balloon-ex-box-1 speech-wrap sb-id-16 sbs-stn sbp-r sbis-cn cf block-box"><div class="speech-person"><figure class="speech-icon"><img decoding="async" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/09/bubble-0004.jpg" alt="" class="speech-icon-image"/></figure><div class="speech-name"></div></div><div class="speech-balloon">
<p>「嫌なものは嫌だ！」「無いものは無い！」という気持ちをこめてハッキリと言っちゃってください。w</p>
</div></div>



<p></p>



<p><br>I&nbsp;<strong>don’t</strong>&nbsp;like it!　<br>「好きじゃない！」<br></p>



<p>I&nbsp;<strong>don’t</strong>&nbsp;have it!<br>「持ってへん！」<br></p>



<p>I&nbsp;<strong>don’t</strong>&nbsp;want it!<br>「いらへん！」<br></p>



<p>I&nbsp;<strong>don’t</strong>&nbsp;want to do that!<br>「そんなんしたない！」<br></p>



<p>I&nbsp;<strong>don’t</strong>&nbsp;know about it!<br>「そんなこと知らへん！」<br></p>



<p><br><strong>don’t&nbsp;</strong>の&nbsp;<strong>t&nbsp;</strong>の音は聞こえなくてオッケーですが、t&nbsp;を取り除くというよりは音がサイレントになってる、または空席になっている感があるのがベストですね。<br><br>音楽でいったら&nbsp;t&nbsp;の部分がスタッカートといった感じでしょうか。<br></p>



<p>こうやって否定の文をまとめて話すと、ストレスが溜まっている人の中にはスッキリする人もいるかもしれません。これを実際の場面でもちゃんと言えるように何度も練習しましょう。<br></p>



<p>（日本語訳の主語はあえて臨場感を出すために省いてあります。）<br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">ちなみに、You、またはThey&nbsp;が主語の時も同じように&nbsp;<strong>don’t (do + not)</strong>　<br>He, She, It,&nbsp;が主語の場合は、<strong>doesn’t (does + not)&nbsp;</strong>が使われます。</h4>



<p></p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading"><span id="toc3"><strong>一般動詞の前に　didn’t (did + not)&nbsp;</strong></span></h3>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="510" height="346" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/margarita-kosior.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-10867" srcset="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/margarita-kosior.jpg 510w, https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/margarita-kosior-300x204.jpg 300w" sizes="(max-width: 510px) 100vw, 510px" /><figcaption>image by Margarita Kosior</figcaption></figure>



<p>おんなじ文章で過去形も言っときましょうか。<br></p>



<p><br>I&nbsp;<strong>didn’t</strong>&nbsp;like it!<br>「私はそれが好きじゃなかったのよ！」<br></p>



<p>I&nbsp;<strong>didn’t</strong>&nbsp;have it!<br>「私はそれを持っていなかったわ！」<br></p>



<p>I&nbsp;<strong>didn’t</strong>&nbsp;want it!<br>「僕はそんなん欲しくなかった！」<br></p>



<p>I&nbsp;<strong>didn’t</strong>&nbsp;want to do that!<br>「僕はそんな事したくなかったんだよ！」<br></p>



<p>I&nbsp;<strong>didn’t</strong>&nbsp;know about it!<br>「私はそんなこと知らへんかった！」<br><br></p>



<p>場合によりけりですが、過ぎてしまったことなので、少々感情のトーンが下がりますかね。w<br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">ちなみに過去形の場合は、主語がYou, They, He, She, It&nbsp;のどの場合でも、<strong>didn’t (did + not)&nbsp;</strong>が使われます。</h4>



<p><br></p>



<div class="wp-block-cocoon-blocks-balloon-ex-box-1 speech-wrap sb-id-13 sbs-stn sbp-r sbis-cn cf block-box"><div class="speech-person"><figure class="speech-icon"><img decoding="async" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/09/bubble-0001.jpg" alt="" class="speech-icon-image"/></figure><div class="speech-name"></div></div><div class="speech-balloon">
<p>さらにキッパリと断る際には、do + not,&nbsp;&nbsp;did + not&nbsp;というように切り離して、<strong>not に力を込めて発音</strong>します。</p>
</div></div>



<p><br><br>I do&nbsp;<strong>not</strong>&nbsp;like it!<br>「好きちゃうねん。」<br></p>



<p>I do&nbsp;<strong>not</strong>&nbsp;have it!<br>「持ってへんっちゅーねん。」<br></p>



<p>I did&nbsp;<strong>not&nbsp;</strong>want it!<br>「そんなん欲しくなかってん！」<br></p>



<p>I did&nbsp;<strong>not</strong>&nbsp;want to do that!<br>「そんなんしたなかってん！」<br></p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading"><span id="toc4"><strong>わたしは〜ではない。</strong><strong>I am + not&nbsp;〜</strong></span></h3>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="510" height="510" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/michael-sala.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-10868" srcset="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/michael-sala.jpg 510w, https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/michael-sala-300x300.jpg 300w, https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/michael-sala-150x150.jpg 150w, https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/michael-sala-200x200.jpg 200w" sizes="(max-width: 510px) 100vw, 510px" /><figcaption>image by Michael Sala</figcaption></figure>



<p><strong><strong>I am + not&nbsp;〜</strong>,「わたしは〜ではない」</strong>ってことで、〜の中にはあなたの状態をブチ込んでやります。<br><br><br>例外はもちろんありますが、基本は形容詞、またはストレートに名詞が入ることが多いです。<br><br><br>そんでもって&nbsp;I am&nbsp;は、たいてい短縮されて<strong>I’m</strong>&nbsp;のカタチで使われます。</p>



<p><strong><br><br>I’m not</strong>&nbsp;happy with (about) this.<br>「私はこれに関しては、ハッピーじゃないね。」<br></p>



<p><strong>I’m not</strong>&nbsp;hungry, yet.<br>「僕はまだ腹は減ってない。」<br></p>



<p><strong>I’m not</strong>&nbsp;good at playing tennis.<br>「私はテニスをするのは得意じゃない。」<br></p>



<p><strong>I’m not</strong>&nbsp;interested in what you are offering me.<br>「あなたがオファーしてくれているものには、私は興味がない。」<br></p>



<p><strong>I’m not</strong>&nbsp;completely disappointed with the result.<br>「僕はその結果に、全くガッカリしているわけではないよ。」<br></p>



<p><strong>I’m not</strong>&nbsp;you!<br>「私はあなたじゃないわ！」<br></p>



<p><strong>I’m not</strong>&nbsp;a machine!<br>「僕は機械なんかじゃない！」</p>



<p><strong>I’m not</strong>&nbsp;there, yet.<br>「僕はまだそこにはいてないよ。」</p>



<p><br><br>ってな感じでしょうか。not&nbsp;が単体で使われているので、don’t&nbsp;よりも強く聞こえますね。<br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">You、またはThey&nbsp;が主語の時は、&nbsp;<strong>aren’t (are + not)</strong>　<br>He, She, It,&nbsp;が主語の場合は、<strong>isn’t (is + not)&nbsp;</strong>が使われます。</h4>



<p><br></p>



<div class="wp-block-cocoon-blocks-balloon-ex-box-1 speech-wrap sb-id-13 sbs-stn sbp-r sbis-cn cf block-box"><div class="speech-person"><figure class="speech-icon"><img decoding="async" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/09/bubble-0001.jpg" alt="" class="speech-icon-image"/></figure><div class="speech-name"></div></div><div class="speech-balloon">
<p>ところで、ちゃんと声出してますか？</p>
</div></div>



<p></p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading"><span id="toc5"><strong>過去形</strong><strong>&nbsp;&nbsp;I wasn’t&nbsp;</strong>(was + not) </span></h3>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="510" height="340" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/marco-lastella.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-10870" srcset="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/marco-lastella.jpg 510w, https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/marco-lastella-300x200.jpg 300w" sizes="(max-width: 510px) 100vw, 510px" /><figcaption>image by Marco Lastella</figcaption></figure>



<p>過去形は　<strong>I was + not&nbsp;〜&nbsp;</strong>のカタチ。<br><br><br>今度は&nbsp;<strong>was</strong> が <strong>not</strong> とくっついて<strong>wasn’t</strong>&nbsp;となります。<br><br><br></p>



<p>I&nbsp;<strong>wasn’t</strong>&nbsp;happy with (about) that!<br>「私はそれに関してハッピーではなかった！」<br></p>



<p>I&nbsp;<strong>wasn’t</strong>&nbsp;hungry, yet.<br>「僕はまだ腹は減っていなかった。」<br></p>



<p>I&nbsp;<strong>wasn’t</strong>&nbsp;good at playing tennis.<br>「私はテニスをするのは得意じゃなかった。」<br></p>



<p>I<strong>&nbsp;wasn’t&nbsp;</strong>interested in what you were offering me.<br>「あなたが私にオファーしてくれていたものには、私は興味がなかった。」<br></p>



<p>I <strong>wasn’t </strong>completely disappointed with the result.<br>「僕はその結果に、全くガッカリしていたわけではなかったんだよ。」<br><br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">過去形は、主語が You,&nbsp;または&nbsp;They&nbsp;の場合は <strong>weren’t (were + not)</strong>&nbsp;、He, She, It&nbsp;の場合は、I&nbsp;の場合と同じで&nbsp;<strong>wasn’t (was + not)&nbsp;</strong>が使われます。</h4>



<p></p>



<h5 class="wp-block-heading">なおネイティブが話すとwas&nbsp;の音が「ワズ」というよりも「ヲズ」と聞こえるのは、&nbsp;wの音を発音する際に、<strong>口をしっかりすぼめている</strong>ところからはじめているからです。</h5>



<p><br>これも意識しながら発音すると良いでしょう。<br><br></p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading"><span id="toc6"><strong>わたしは 〜できない。</strong><strong>I can‘t&nbsp;〜&nbsp;/ I cannot&nbsp;〜</strong></span></h3>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="510" height="309" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/jen-theodore.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-10871" srcset="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/jen-theodore.jpg 510w, https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/jen-theodore-300x182.jpg 300w" sizes="(max-width: 510px) 100vw, 510px" /><figcaption>image by Jen Theodore </figcaption></figure>



<p>「〜することができない。」ってのも日常で使う機会大アリです。<br><br><br>“ごはんですよ” のフタが「ぬぁ〜っ！どうしても開けられねぇ〜！」ってやってますよね。w<br><br></p>



<p>I&nbsp;<strong>can’t</strong>&nbsp;open this!<br>「これ、開けられねぇ〜！」<br></p>



<p>I&nbsp;<strong>can’t</strong>&nbsp;do this!<br>「俺にはでけへん！」<br></p>



<p>I&nbsp;<strong>can’t</strong>&nbsp;call her now!<br>「今は彼女に電話でけへんわ！」<br></p>



<p>I&nbsp;<strong>can’t</strong>&nbsp;fix it!<br>「直せへん！」<br></p>



<p>I&nbsp;<strong>can’t</strong>&nbsp;sleep!<br>「寝られへん！」<br></p>



<p>I&nbsp;<strong>can’t</strong>&nbsp;wait!<br>「待たれへん！」<br><br></p>



<p>感情がこもってる文章は、短めですよね。<br><br><br>この後はたいてい&nbsp;“(It’s) Because ~”&nbsp;「なぜなら〜」といった感じで、その理由を表す文章が続きます。<br><br>できる人は想像をふくらませて、そこまでボソッてしまいましょう。<br><br><br></p>



<div class="wp-block-cocoon-blocks-balloon-ex-box-1 speech-wrap sb-id-16 sbs-stn sbp-r sbis-cn cf block-box"><div class="speech-person"><figure class="speech-icon"><img decoding="async" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/09/bubble-0004.jpg" alt="" class="speech-icon-image"/></figure><div class="speech-name"></div></div><div class="speech-balloon">
<p><strong>それと、can’t&nbsp;の発音は、イギリス英語とアメリカ英語の違いがわかりやすいところですね。</strong></p>
</div></div>



<p></p>



<p><br>おもしろいYouTube付きの記事があったので興味のある方は下のリンクからどうぞ。</p>



<p>👉 <a rel="noopener nofollow" target="_blank" href="https://www.simpleenglishvideos.com/pronounce-can-cant-british-american-english/">Simple English videos / How to say Can and Can’t in British and American</a></p>



<p><br><br>そしてさらにもう１つ。<br><br><br>can’t&nbsp;と&nbsp;cannot&nbsp;の違いですが、can’t&nbsp;の方がインフォーマル、cannot&nbsp;の方がフォーマルよりですので、真面目なところに提出する文章では&nbsp;cannot&nbsp;を使いましょう。<br></p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading"><span id="toc7"><strong>現在進行形の否定文</strong></span></h3>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="510" height="341" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/rhand-mccoy.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-10873" srcset="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/rhand-mccoy.jpg 510w, https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/rhand-mccoy-300x201.jpg 300w" sizes="(max-width: 510px) 100vw, 510px" /><figcaption>image by Rhand McCoy</figcaption></figure>



<h6 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>am + not +&nbsp;動詞の現在分詞（〜ing）</strong></h6>



<p>現在進行形の否定は、シチュエーション的には恐らく「今〜してる？」って質問に対して、「〜してへん。」って答えるのが普通だと思うんで、独り言としてはそこまで使う機会はないかもしれません。<br><br><br>&#8230; が、とりあえず見ていきましょう。</p>



<p><strong><br></strong><br>I’<strong>m not&nbsp;</strong>do<strong>ing</strong>&nbsp;very well.<br>「あんま調子よくやってないね。」<br></p>



<p>I’<strong>m not&nbsp;</strong>tak<strong>ing</strong>&nbsp;it seriously.<br>「私はそれを真剣にとらえていない。」<br></p>



<p>I’<strong>m not&nbsp;</strong>think<strong>ing</strong>&nbsp;about what he said at all.<br>「彼の言ったことなんてまったく考えていない。」<br></p>



<p>I<strong>’m not&nbsp;</strong>listen<strong>ing</strong>&nbsp;to her.&nbsp;<br>「僕は彼女の言うことを聞いていない。」<br></p>



<p>I’<strong>m not&nbsp;</strong>look<strong>ing</strong>&nbsp;after myself.<br>「私は自分の面倒を見ていない。」</p>



<p><br>とまぁ、こんな感じですかね。<br><br></p>



<h6 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>was + not +&nbsp;動詞の現在分詞（〜ing）</strong></h6>



<p>現在進行形で否定文となると、どちらかと言えば、後悔している時などに過去をふり返って「〜していなかった。」とつぶやく場合のほうが多いのでは&#8230; ?<br></p>



<p><br>I&nbsp;<strong>wasn’t&nbsp;</strong>do<strong>ing</strong>&nbsp;very well.<br>「あんま調子よくやってなかった。」<br></p>



<p>I&nbsp;<strong>wasn’t&nbsp;</strong>tak<strong>ing</strong>&nbsp;it seriously.<br>「私はそれを真剣にとらえていなかった。」<br></p>



<p>I&nbsp;<strong>wasn’t&nbsp;</strong>think<strong>ing</strong>&nbsp;about what he had said at all.<br>「彼の言ったことを全く考えていなかった。」<br></p>



<p>I<strong>&nbsp;wasn’t&nbsp;</strong>listen<strong>ing</strong>&nbsp;to her.&nbsp;<br>「僕は彼女の言うことを聞いていなかった。」<br></p>



<p>I&nbsp;<strong>wasn’t&nbsp;</strong>look<strong>ing</strong>&nbsp;after myself.<br>「私は自分の面倒を見ていなかった。」</p>



<p><br><br>あとは、近い将来に確実に起っていること、わかりきっていることなどを表現する際に&nbsp;be + doing&nbsp;のカタチが使われますが、これも否定形&nbsp;<strong>am + not&nbsp;動詞の現在分詞（〜ing）</strong>でいっときましょう。</p>



<p><br><br>I’<strong>m not&nbsp;</strong>play<strong>ing</strong>&nbsp;tonight’s game.<br>「私は今晩の試合には参加（プレイ）しない。」<br></p>



<p>I<strong>’m</strong>&nbsp;<strong>not</strong>&nbsp;see<strong>ing</strong>&nbsp;her this evening, because something urgent has happened.<br>「急用ができたので、今晩彼女には会わない。」</p>



<p>I<strong>’m</strong>&nbsp;<strong>not</strong>&nbsp;pick<strong>ing</strong>&nbsp;him up this afternoon, because he is popping in his friend’s house.<br>「彼は友達の家によることになっているから、今日の午後は彼を迎えにいかない。」</p>



<p><br><br>それと、近い将来「それは絶対ない」という<strong>拒絶</strong>の意思表明も同じカタチでいけます。<br><br><br></p>



<p>I<strong>’m not&nbsp;</strong>do<strong>ing</strong>&nbsp;it (no matter what you tell me)!<br>「私はそれをしません（何を言われようと）！」<br></p>



<p>I<strong>’m not&nbsp;</strong>leav<strong>ing</strong>&nbsp;this place, because this is my house!<br>「ここは私の家なんで、この場所から立ち退きません！」</p>



<p>I<strong>’m not&nbsp;</strong>sha<strong>ring</strong>&nbsp;the information with you!<br>「アンタとは情報を共有しません。」<br></p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading"><span id="toc8"><strong>現在完了形の否定文</strong><strong></strong></span></h3>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full is-resized"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/tolga-ulkan.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-10875" width="510" height="340" srcset="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/tolga-ulkan.jpg 510w, https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/tolga-ulkan-300x200.jpg 300w" sizes="(max-width: 510px) 100vw, 510px" /><figcaption>image by Tolga Ulkan</figcaption></figure>



<p><strong>have + not +&nbsp;過去分詞　「まだ〜していない」</strong>のカタチですね。</p>



<p>have + not&nbsp;は基本&nbsp;<strong>haven’t&nbsp;</strong>のカタチ短縮され、しばしば&nbsp;, yet&nbsp;「まだ」が文章に加えられます。<br></p>



<p><br><br>I&nbsp;<strong>haven’t</strong>&nbsp;emailed him back, yet.<br>「まだ彼にメールの返事をしていない。」<br></p>



<p>I&nbsp;<strong>haven’t</strong>&nbsp;had my breakfast, yet.<br>「私はまだ朝メシを食ってない。」<br></p>



<p>I&nbsp;<strong>haven’t</strong>&nbsp;done it, yet.<br>「私はまだそれをやっていない。」<br></p>



<p>I&nbsp;<strong>haven’t</strong>&nbsp;heard from my sister, yet.<br>「まだ姉&nbsp;(妹)&nbsp;からの便りはない。」</p>



<p><br>I&nbsp;<strong>haven’t</strong>&nbsp;told my dad about the news.<br>「まだ親父にはそのニュースを伝えていない。」<br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">現在完了形は、主語が You&nbsp;または&nbsp;They&nbsp;の場合は、I&nbsp;の場合と同様に&nbsp;&nbsp;<strong>haven’t (have + not)</strong>&nbsp;、He, She, It&nbsp;の場合は、<strong>has’t (has + not)&nbsp;</strong>が使われます。</h4>



<p><br></p>



<div class="wp-block-cocoon-blocks-balloon-ex-box-1 speech-wrap sb-id-13 sbs-stn sbp-r sbis-cn cf block-box"><div class="speech-person"><figure class="speech-icon"><img decoding="async" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/09/bubble-0001.jpg" alt="" class="speech-icon-image"/></figure><div class="speech-name"></div></div><div class="speech-balloon">
<p>自分でも、思いついたらオリジナルの文章を作って、しゃべってみましょう。</p>
</div></div>



<p></p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading"><span id="toc9"><strong>未来形の否定文</strong></span></h3>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="431" height="287" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/Oleg-Gamulinskiy.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-10876" srcset="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/Oleg-Gamulinskiy.jpg 431w, https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/Oleg-Gamulinskiy-300x200.jpg 300w" sizes="(max-width: 431px) 100vw, 431px" /><figcaption>image by Oleg Gamulinskiy</figcaption></figure>



<p>未来形は、助動詞の&nbsp;will&nbsp;を使ったもの&nbsp;<strong>will + not (won’t)&nbsp;〜</strong> と、進行形である <strong>be + going to&nbsp;〜</strong> 「〜するつもりだ」のカタチの現在分詞の前に not&nbsp;を置いたものが使えます。<br></p>



<p>まずは、<strong>will + not (won’t)&nbsp;〜&nbsp;</strong>のカタチから見ていきます。<br></p>



<h5 class="wp-block-heading">基本的に<strong>will&nbsp;を使うときは、自分が未来の出来事を確信している状態</strong>と覚えておけばオッケーです。</h5>



<p><br>加えて、I’m not going to&nbsp;〜 のカタチよりも強く、そして微妙に<strong>フォーマルな響き</strong>を持ってます。<br><br><br></p>



<p>I&nbsp;<strong>won’t</strong>&nbsp;have time to enjoy this cake.<br>「このケーキを楽しんでる時間はないであろう。」<br></p>



<p>I&nbsp;<strong>won’t</strong>&nbsp;be back home till tomorrow morning.<br>「明日の朝まで家には帰って来ません。」<br></p>



<p>I&nbsp;<strong>won’t</strong>&nbsp;quit my job.<br>「私は仕事をやめない。」<br></p>



<p>I&nbsp;<strong>won’t</strong>&nbsp;remember what I have learnt today because there’re too much of terminologies.<br>「専門用語だらけで今日覚えたことは、思い出せないであろう。」<br></p>



<p>I&nbsp;<strong>won’t</strong>&nbsp;tell you the secret.<br>「その秘密をあなたには教えない。」<br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">will&nbsp;は助動詞なので、どの主語がきても&nbsp;<strong>won’t</strong>&nbsp;でいけます。</h4>



<p><br><br><br>続いては、<strong>I’m not going to&nbsp;〜&nbsp;</strong>のカタチ。<br><br>「〜するつもりはない。」の意味になります。<br><br><br></p>



<p>I<strong>’m not going to</strong> help her unless she changes her attitude.<br>「彼女が態度を改めないかぎり、僕には彼女を助けるつもりはない。」<br></p>



<p>I<strong>’m not going to</strong> play outside even if the weather is fine.<br>「たとえ天気が良くても、外で遊ぶつもりはない。」<br></p>



<p>I<strong>’m not going to</strong> eat this, because there are some tomatoes in it.<br>「トマトが入っているから、私はこれを食べるつもりはない。」<br></p>



<p>I<strong>’m not going to</strong> join the army.<br>「軍隊に参加するつもりはない。」<br></p>



<p>I<strong>’m not going to</strong> see her.<br>「彼女に会うつもりはない。」<br><br></p>



<p></p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><span id="toc10"><strong>not 以外の言葉で否定を表現</strong></span></h2>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="510" height="340" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/Igor-Link.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-10877" srcset="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/Igor-Link.jpg 510w, https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/Igor-Link-300x200.jpg 300w" sizes="(max-width: 510px) 100vw, 510px" /><figcaption>image by Igor Link</figcaption></figure>



<p>not&nbsp;以外の否定表現はいろいろあるので、今回ここではとりあえずシンプルなものをセレクトしてフィーチャーしてあります。</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading"><span id="toc11"><strong>no を使った否定文</strong></span></h3>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="510" height="357" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/Engin_Akyurt-1.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-10878" srcset="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/Engin_Akyurt-1.jpg 510w, https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/Engin_Akyurt-1-300x210.jpg 300w" sizes="(max-width: 510px) 100vw, 510px" /><figcaption>image by Engin Akyurt</figcaption></figure>



<p>no&nbsp;は名詞の前に置いて「(名詞を指すもの）がない」という意味です。<br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">というわけで、所有を表す動詞&nbsp;“have”&nbsp;や&nbsp;“There is (are)&nbsp;〜”&nbsp;のカタチの文章の中の名詞を否定するやり方で文章が作られます。</h4>



<p><br><br>肯定文を否定文にする経過を見たら一目瞭然ですね。</p>



<p>I have three apples.<br>「私は、リンゴを３つ持っている。」</p>



<p>👉&nbsp;I have no apples.<br>「私は、no apples&nbsp;を持っている。」</p>



<p><strong>→</strong>「私は、リンゴを持っていない。」<br><br><br><br><br>というわけで例文。<br><br><br><br><br>I have <strong>no</strong> clue (idea)!<br>「全くわからん！」（手がかりナシってことで）<br></p>



<p>I have<strong> no</strong> regrets.<br>「後悔はしていない。」<br></p>



<p>I have <strong>no</strong> siblings.<br>「私には兄弟姉妹がいない。」<br><br><br></p>



<p>過去形でもしゃべっておきましょうか。<br><br></p>



<p><br>I had <strong>no</strong> money.<br>「金まったく持ってなかったんよ。」</p>



<p><br>I had <strong>no</strong> time for you to talk about that matter.<br>「そのことについてあなたと話している時間はなかった。」<br><br></p>



<p><br><strong>There is (are)</strong>&nbsp;のカタチでもやっときましょう。</p>



<p><br><br>There is <strong>no</strong> such a thing!<br>「そんなものはない！」<br></p>



<p>There is <strong>no</strong> way I can get out of here safely.<br>「ここから安全に抜け出せる方法はない。」<br></p>



<p>There are <strong>no</strong> bus stops on this side of the road.<br>「道のこっち側にはバス停はないよ。」</p>



<p>There was <strong>no</strong> ketchup in the fridge.<br>「冷蔵庫にケチャップはなかった。」</p>



<p>There were <strong>no</strong> cashpoints in this shopping mall.<br>「このショッピングモールには現金をおろせるところがなかった。」<br><br></p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading"><span id="toc12"><strong>never&nbsp;を使った否定文</strong></span></h3>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="510" height="321" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/azzedine-rouichi.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-10879" srcset="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/azzedine-rouichi.jpg 510w, https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/azzedine-rouichi-300x189.jpg 300w" sizes="(max-width: 510px) 100vw, 510px" /><figcaption>image by Azzedine Rouichi</figcaption></figure>



<p>はい。Never は、<strong>めっちゃくちゃ強い否定</strong>です。<br><br>「全く〜ない」「決して〜ない」ってやつですね。<br></p>



<p>キッパリといっときましょう。<br><br><br></p>



<p>I&nbsp;<strong>never</strong>&nbsp;knew that.<br>「それは全く知らんかった。」<br></p>



<p><strong>Never</strong>&nbsp;talk to strangers in this town！<br>「この街では、知らない人には決して話しかけるな！」<br></p>



<p>I will&nbsp;<strong>never</strong>&nbsp;see her again.<br>「彼女と会うことは２度とないであろう。」<br></p>



<p>I have&nbsp;<strong>never</strong>&nbsp;been to Africa.<br>「今までアフリカには１度も行ったことがない。」<br></p>



<p><strong>Never</strong>&nbsp;say never!<br>「絶対にないってことはない。→まだ可能性はある。」</p>



<p></p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading"><span id="toc13"><strong>nothing / no one・nobody / nowhereを使った表現</strong></span></h3>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="510" height="357" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/darian-garcia.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-10880" srcset="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/darian-garcia.jpg 510w, https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/darian-garcia-300x210.jpg 300w" sizes="(max-width: 510px) 100vw, 510px" /><figcaption>image by Darian Garcia</figcaption></figure>



<p><strong>nothing&nbsp;</strong>は言ってみれば<strong>「無」</strong>ってことなんで、no&nbsp;の場合と同じように所有を表す動詞&nbsp;“have”&nbsp;や&nbsp;“There is (are)&nbsp;〜”&nbsp;のカタチの文章をつかって、</p>



<p><strong>「無を持っている・無がある」</strong><strong>&nbsp;=&nbsp;「何も持っていない・何もない」</strong></p>



<p>という感じで文章を作ります。<br><br><br></p>



<p>I have&nbsp;<strong>nothing</strong>&nbsp;for you to give.<br>There is&nbsp;<strong>nothing</strong>&nbsp;for you to give.<br><br>「あなたにあげられるものは何もない。」<br><br></p>



<p>I have&nbsp;<strong>nothing</strong>&nbsp;to lose.<br>There is&nbsp;<strong>nothing</strong>&nbsp;to lose.<br><br>「何も失うものはない。」<br><br></p>



<p>The boy had&nbsp;<strong>nothing</strong>&nbsp;to wear.<br>There was&nbsp;<strong>nothing</strong>&nbsp;for the boy to wear.<br><br>「その少年には着るものが何もなかった。」<br><br></p>



<p><br>これが人の場合だったら、<strong>no one</strong>&nbsp;または <strong>nobody</strong>&nbsp;が使われます。<br><br></p>



<p><br>I had&nbsp;<strong>no one</strong>&nbsp;to talk to.<br>There was&nbsp;<strong>no one</strong>&nbsp;I could talk to.<br><br>「私には誰も話す相手がいなかった。」<br><br></p>



<p>I have&nbsp;<strong>nobody</strong>&nbsp;to play with tomorrow.<br>There is&nbsp;<strong>nobody</strong>&nbsp;I can play with tomorrow.<br><br>「明日僕にはいっしょに遊ぶ友達がいない。」<br><br></p>



<h5 class="wp-block-heading">no one&nbsp;のほうが nobody&nbsp;よりもややフォーマルってことで、論文なんかを書く場合は、no one&nbsp;のほうが好まれます。</h5>



<p><br><br><br>場所の場合は&nbsp;<strong>nowhere</strong>&nbsp;が使われます。</p>



<p><br><br>I have&nbsp;<strong>nowhere</strong>&nbsp;to stay tonight.<br>There is&nbsp;<strong>nowhere</strong>&nbsp;I can stay tonight.<br><br>「今晩私には寝床がない。」<br><br></p>



<p><br>nothing&nbsp;を主語に持ってくることで「何も〜ない。」という文章も作れます。<br></p>



<p><br><br><strong>Nothing</strong>&nbsp;is permanent<br>「何も永遠ではない。→永遠なんてものはない。」<br></p>



<p><strong>Nothing</strong>&nbsp;was said.<br>「誰も何も言わなかった。」<br></p>



<p><strong>Nothing</strong>&nbsp;was delivered.<br>「何も届けられなかった。」<br></p>



<p><strong>Nothing</strong>&nbsp;can be achieved if you don’t act right now.<br>「今すぐ行動に移さなければ、何も達成されない。」</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading"><span id="toc14"><strong>none&nbsp;を使った表現</strong></span></h3>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="510" height="345" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/alex_rainer.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-10881" srcset="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/alex_rainer.jpg 510w, https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/alex_rainer-300x203.jpg 300w" sizes="(max-width: 510px) 100vw, 510px" /><figcaption>image by Alex Rainer</figcaption></figure>



<p>None&nbsp;はその後に of が続くと、その目的語が示す集合体&nbsp;(3つ、3人以上)&nbsp;の<strong>「どれも〜ない」「いずれも〜ない」</strong>の意味で使われます。</p>



<p>単数扱い、複数扱いのどちらでもいけますが、口語表現では複数扱いが多いです。<br><br>of&nbsp;の後に不可算名詞、または単数の代名詞がくる場合は単数扱いになります。<br><br></p>



<p><strong>None</strong>&nbsp;of them are mine.<br>「それらのどれもが私のものではない。」<br></p>



<p><strong>None</strong> of these mushrooms are poisonous.&nbsp;<br>「これらのキノコのいずれも毒キノコではない。」<br></p>



<p><strong>None</strong> of these paintings are original.<br>「これらの絵画のどれもがオリジナルのものではない。」<br></p>



<p><strong>None</strong> of this has happened.<br>「このうちのどれもが、いままでに起こっていない。」<br></p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading"><span id="toc15"><strong>neither&nbsp;を使った否定文</strong></span></h3>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="510" height="331" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/kyle-hinkson.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-10882" srcset="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/kyle-hinkson.jpg 510w, https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/kyle-hinkson-300x195.jpg 300w" sizes="(max-width: 510px) 100vw, 510px" /><figcaption>image by Kyle Hinkson</figcaption></figure>



<p><strong>「２つのこと」</strong>を両方とも否定する時に使います。<br><br></p>



<div class="wp-block-cocoon-blocks-balloon-ex-box-1 speech-wrap sb-id-17 sbs-stn sbp-r sbis-cn cf block-box"><div class="speech-person"><figure class="speech-icon"><img decoding="async" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/09/bubble-0002.jpg" alt="" class="speech-icon-image"/></figure><div class="speech-name"></div></div><div class="speech-balloon">
<p>実際のところは、２つ以上のことを取り扱うときでも &#8220;neither&#8221; を用いても問題はないのですが、日常で特に「２つのこと」を取り扱う際に &#8220;neither&#8221; が使われているため、そう言うものになってしまっています。</p>
</div></div>



<p></p>



<p><br><strong>「どちらの〜も〜じゃない」</strong>という意味になりますが、<strong>けっこう注意が必要な否定ボキャブラリー</strong>なので、ここはちょっとペースダウンしてゆっくり見ていきましょう。</p>



<p>（でも声は出してね。💖）</p>



<p><br><strong>単数の名詞を修飾しているので、動詞は単数形。</strong></p>



<p><br><br><strong>Neither</strong> guitar was broken.<br>「どっちのギターも壊れていなかった。」<br></p>



<p><strong>Neither</strong> towel is dry.<br>「どっちのタオルも乾いていない。」<br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">２つのことを話しているから、つい動詞を複数形扱いにしてしまいそうですが、それは<strong>NG</strong>です。</h4>



<p><br><br><br>じゃあ、こう来るとどうなるか？（ってもう答えは書いてあるけど。W）</p>



<p><br><br><strong>Neither</strong> of them is currently available.<br>「それらのどちらもが現在入手できません。」<br></p>



<p><strong>Neither</strong> of us cares about throwing the rubbish away.<br>「私たちのどちらもが、そのゴミを捨てることを気にかけない。」<br></p>



<p><strong>Neither</strong> of us was happy about the new place.<br>「私たちのどちらもが、その新しい場所にハッピーではなかった。」<br><br></p>



<p>of&nbsp;の後が&nbsp;them「それら」us&nbsp;「私たち」と複数形なので迷ってしまいがちですが、考え方は前の例文「どっちのギターも」「どっちのタオルも」と同じで、「２つ、または2人のうちのどちらもが」ってことになり動詞は単数形が使われます。<br><br><br>&#8230; が、インフォーマルなコミュニケーション、つまり日常会話では複数形が浸透して使われているのが現実です。<br><br></p>



<div class="wp-block-cocoon-blocks-balloon-ex-box-1 speech-wrap sb-id-13 sbs-stn sbp-r sbis-cn cf block-box"><div class="speech-person"><figure class="speech-icon"><img decoding="async" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/09/bubble-0001.jpg" alt="" class="speech-icon-image"/></figure><div class="speech-name"></div></div><div class="speech-balloon">
<p><strong>ちなみにこの them&nbsp;と&nbsp;us&nbsp;が 3人以上だったら、先ほどやった&nbsp;none&nbsp;が適用されます。</strong></p>
</div></div>



<p><br></p>



<h6 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>英語初心者によくある間違い。</strong><strong></strong></h6>



<p>日本語で、誰かが何かを「好き」って時に同意する際、「私も〜！」ってなりますよね<br></p>



<p><strong>Aさん&nbsp;:&nbsp;</strong><br><br>「私はピアノジャズが好き。」&nbsp;&nbsp;<br>”I love piano jazz music.”</p>



<p><strong>B&nbsp;さん</strong>&nbsp;:&nbsp;<br><br>「えーっ、マジ？　私も〜！」&nbsp;&nbsp;<br>“Really? Me, too!”<br></p>



<p><br>これが、何かを「好きじゃない」って時&#8230;<br><br></p>



<p><strong>Aさん&nbsp;:&nbsp;</strong><br><br>「私、実はタバコ吸う人好きじゃないんだよね。」&nbsp;&nbsp;<br>&nbsp;”I don’t like smokers, to be honest.”<br></p>



<p><strong>B&nbsp;さん</strong>&nbsp;:&nbsp;<br><br>「あ、私も！」&nbsp;&nbsp;<br>&nbsp;“Me too!”</p>



<p><br>ってやってしまいますが、<strong>これは間違いです。</strong><br><br></p>



<p>相手が否定文の場合に同意するときは、「私も<strong>〜でない。</strong>」ってことで</p>



<p><strong>“Me neither！”　</strong>と答えるのが正解です。<br><br></p>



<h5 class="wp-block-heading">A&nbsp;さんの文章が、”I hate smokers, to be honest.” だったのであれば、否定「〜ではない。」のカタチが含まれていないので、”Me too!”&nbsp;で答えることができます。</h5>



<p><br><br>ちなみにこれは「好き・嫌い」の文章に限らず、相手の否定文に同意して「私も〜でない」と言うと際には&nbsp;“Me neither！”&nbsp;が使われます。<br></p>



<p>ここで徹底的に声を出して慣れてしまいましょう。<br><br><br></p>



<p><strong>Aさん:</strong>　<br><br>I <strong>didn’t</strong> understand what she was saying.<br>「私は、彼女の言っていたことが理解できなかった。」<br><br><br><strong>あなた:</strong><br><br><strong>Me neither!</strong><br>「わたしも！」<br><br><br></p>



<p><strong>Aさん:</strong><br><br>I <strong>didn’t</strong> know that he was an Italian.<br>「私は、彼がイタリア人だったとは知らなかった。」</p>



<p><strong>あなた:</strong><br><br><strong>Me neither!</strong><br>「僕もです！」<br><br><br></p>



<p><strong>Aさん:</strong>　<br><br>I <strong>don’t</strong> think that picnic will be happening with this weather.<br>「僕は、この天気じゃピクニックがあるとは思わないな。」</p>



<p><strong>あなた:</strong>　<br><br><strong>Me neither!</strong><br>「私もそうは思わない！」<br><br></p>



<p><br><strong>Aさん:</strong><br><br>I <strong>don’t</strong> care about the colour of it.<br>「その色彩がどうこうなんて私は気にしない。」</p>



<p><strong>あなた:</strong>　<br><br><strong>Me neither!</strong><br>「私もですね。」</p>



<p><br><br><strong>Aさん:</strong><br><br>I <strong>didn&#8217;t</strong> know that it was your birthday !<br>「君の誕生日だったとは知らなかったよ！」</p>



<p><strong>あなた:</strong><br><br><strong>Me neither!</strong><br>「私も！」</p>



<p><br>（最後のは、しょーもないジョークです。w）<br><br></p>



<h6 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Neither&nbsp;の発音</strong></h6>



<p><br>最後は発音です。</p>



<p>このneitherって単語。リスニングをしている際に、「アレっ、２種類ある。」て気づいたはいいけど、「自分はどっちで発音すべきやろ？」ってなっている人がいるのではないでしょうか？</p>



<p><br>正直なところ、自分の発音しやすい方でやってしまって全然オッケーなんですが、基本的には、<br><br></p>



<p>🇬🇧&nbsp;ブリティッシュアクセントでは　<br><br><strong>[naɪ.ðər]&nbsp;&nbsp;ナイ</strong>ザー<br><br><br>🇺🇸&nbsp;アメリカンアクセントでは&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<br><br><strong>[niː.ðər]　ニー</strong>ザー</p>



<p><br>ということで、自分の目指しているアクセントがはっきりしているのであれば、こだわってみるのも良いかもしれません。<br></p>



<p></p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><span id="toc16"><strong>否定の文章を </strong><strong>”It‘s&nbsp;” で始める</strong></span></h2>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="482" height="331" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/luke-ellis-2.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-10883" srcset="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/luke-ellis-2.jpg 482w, https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/luke-ellis-2-300x206.jpg 300w" sizes="(max-width: 482px) 100vw, 482px" /><figcaption>image by Luke Ellis</figcaption></figure>



<p>”It’s not”&nbsp;ではじまる文章には いろいろありますが、非常に便利でよく使う表現なのでここでモノにしていきましょう。</p>



<p>もうすでに理解している方も、すぐに口から出てくるように声に出して例文を読んでみましょう。<br></p>



<p><br><strong>“It’s not … for&nbsp;人(もの)”</strong>&nbsp;&nbsp;<strong>「人(もの)にとって…ではない。」</strong><br><br><br></p>



<p><strong>It’s not</strong> good <strong>for</strong> me.<br>「それは私にとってよくない。」<br></p>



<p><strong>It’s not</strong> enough<strong> for</strong> Steve.<br>「それはスティーブにとっては十分じゃない。」<br><br><br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">過去形も&nbsp;“It’s not ~”&nbsp;でいけますが、違いがわかるように通常は&nbsp;”It wasn’t ~”&nbsp;が使われます。</h4>



<p><br><br><br><strong>It wasn’t</strong> acceptable <strong>for</strong> them.<br>「それは彼らにとっては受け入れられるものではなかった。」<br></p>



<p><strong>It wasn&#8217;t</strong> attractive <strong>for</strong> women. <br>「それは女性陣にとっては魅力的ではなかった。」<br><br><br></p>



<p>これに&nbsp;<strong>“to+動詞”</strong>&nbsp;を足してやると<strong>「人(もの)にとって〜するのは…ではない。」</strong>になります。<br><br><br></p>



<p><strong>It’s not</strong> difficult <strong>for</strong> me <strong>to</strong> use chopsticks.<br>「箸を使うことは私にとって難しいことではなかった。」<br></p>



<p><strong>It’s not</strong> really easy <strong>for</strong> Jade <strong>to</strong> resist these sweets.<br>「これらの甘いお菓子を拒絶することは、ジェイドにとってはそう簡単なことではない。」<br></p>



<p><strong>It wasn’t</strong> possible <strong>for</strong> him <strong>to</strong> open the lid.<br>「そのフタを開けることは、彼とっては不可能だった。」<br></p>



<p><strong>It wasn’t</strong> loud enough <strong>for</strong> them <strong>to</strong> hear.<br>「それは、彼らが聴きとるのに十分な音量ではなかった。」<br><br><br></p>



<p>形容詞の代わりに、名詞でもいけます。<br><br><br></p>



<p><strong>It’s not</strong> a problem <strong>for</strong> me.<br>「それは私にとって問題ではない。」<br></p>



<p><strong>It wasn’t</strong> a good timing <strong>for</strong> the cat <strong>to</strong> cross the road.<br>「それは、その猫にとって道を渡るのに良いタイミングではなかった。」<br><br><br></p>



<p>場合によっては&nbsp;<strong>“for人(もの)”</strong>&nbsp;と&nbsp;<strong>“to+動詞&nbsp;“&nbsp;</strong>が入れ替わってもオッケーです。<br><br>(文章の流れが自然であれば、大丈夫です。)<br><br><br></p>



<p><strong>It’s not</strong> difficult <strong>to</strong> understand <strong>for</strong> him.<br>「彼にとってそれを理解するのは難しくはなかった。」<br></p>



<p><strong>It’s not</strong> a straightforward issue <strong>to</strong> solve <strong>for</strong> the landlord.<br>「大家さんにとって、それは簡単に解決できる問題ではなかった。」<br></p>



<p><strong>It wasn’t</strong> a practical way <strong>to</strong> carry out <strong>for</strong> the team.<br>「そのチームにとって、そのやり方は実行するのに実用的ではなかった。」<br><br></p>



<p></p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><span id="toc17"><strong>too … to 構文を使いこなす。</strong></span></h2>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="510" height="343" src="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/simon-hurry.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-10885" srcset="https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/simon-hurry.jpg 510w, https://www.konkaz.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/simon-hurry-300x202.jpg 300w" sizes="(max-width: 510px) 100vw, 510px" /><figcaption>image by Simon Hurry</figcaption></figure>



<p><strong><br></strong><strong>too &#8230; to 〜</strong> は<strong>「&#8230;すぎて〜できない。」</strong>の意味を持つ否定の表現で、日常会話にも非常によく使われます。<br><br><br><strong>too much!</strong> 「やり過ぎ・行き過ぎ」というフレーズがあるように、この構文の持っている否定的なニュアンスは、はじめの &#8220;<strong>too</strong> &#8230;&#8221; 「<strong>&#8230;すぎる</strong>！」に含まれています。<br><br><br><br><br>It&#8217;s too cold!  <br>「それは冷たすぎる!」<br><br>This is too tight!　<br>「これはキツすぎる!」<br><br>That is too small!  <br>「それは小さすぎる!」<br><br><br><br><br>でもってコレに to不定詞 加えると（〜するには）のニュアンスになって<br></p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">「〜するには &#8230;すぎる。」<br>👉「&#8230;すぎて、〜できない。」</h4>



<p><br>となります。<br><br><br></p>



<p>It&#8217;s too cold to hold! <br>「それは冷たすぎて持っていられない！」<br><br>This is too tight to take out! <br>「これはキツすぎて取り出せない！」<br><br>That&#8217;s too small to wear! <br>「それは小さすぎて履けない！」<br><br></p>



<p>「誰にとって」の意味の “for 人(もの)” は、必要に応じて to不定詞の前に置かれます。</p>



<p><br>というわけで、くりかえし声に出してしっかりおさえておきましょう。<br><br><br></p>



<p>I’m <strong>too</strong> tired <strong>to</strong> walk.<br>「私は疲れすぎてもう歩けない。」<br></p>



<p>I’m <strong>too</strong> scared <strong>to</strong> move.<br>「怖すぎて動けない。」<br></p>



<p>She was <strong>too</strong> worried <strong>to</strong> sleep.<br>「彼女は不安すぎて眠れなかった。」</p>



<p>It was <strong>too</strong> complicated for his level <strong>to</strong> solve.<br>「それは、彼のレヴェルには複雑すぎて解決できなかった。」<br></p>



<p>It’s just <strong>too</strong> dark <strong>to</strong> see.<br>「それは、ただ暗すぎて見えない。」<br></p>



<p>It was <strong>too</strong> sudden for me <strong>to</strong> react.<br>「それは、僕には唐突すぎて対応できなかった。」<br></p>



<p>The ball was <strong>too</strong> fast <strong>to</strong> catch.<br>「その球は速すぎてつかめなかった。」<br></p>



<p>The girl was <strong>too</strong> young <strong>to</strong> understand the meaning of it.<br>「その少女は、幼すぎてその意味を理解できなかった。」<br></p>



<p>I was <strong>too</strong> shy <strong>to</strong> sing in front of everyone.<br>「僕は恥ずかしがり屋すぎて、みんなの前で歌えたかった。」<br></p>



<p><br><br><strong>こんな感じであなたも思い付いた形容詞を使って文章を考えて声に出してみましょう。</strong><br><br><br><br>というわけで、とりあえず今回はこの辺で&#8230;<br><br>お疲れ様でした。<br></p>



<p>コンカズ</p>



<p>*この記事の英語ヴァージョンは 👉 <a rel="noopener follow" target="_blank" href="https://www.konkaz.com/eigo-jiru-026-english/">こちらから</a></p>
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